1 10 4 https://writingresources.lakeheadu.ca/files/original/03b17a3e38e892c5cd7d182460aa0f9e.pdf 9b611c893456f11e7f79e442b102e6df PDF Text Text WRITING MANUAL AND STYLE GUIDE 12th Edition 2014 FACULTY OF NATURAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT Lakehead University Thunder Bay, Ontario �ii PREFACE Much of this manual was adopted from the Writing Manual and Style Guide (6th edition) by Yves Prévost and Anthea Kyle. The first version of a writing manual, which was accepted by the School of Forestry’s Faculty Council in 1982, was prepared by N.J. Phillips, and was based on the third edition of Format Requirements for Theses and Reports in the Faculty of Forestry, University of New Brunswick. The present edition has two purposes: 1) to provide a guideline for students in the Faculty of Natural Resources Management for the appropriate style and format requirements for course reports, essays and undergraduate theses and 2) to describe how students will be supported and evaluated in their writing through a Writing Across the Curriculum (WAC) program. If you have any comments about additions or corrections or requests for clarification, please contact Peggy Smith at pasmith@lakeheadu.ca. �iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Various people have worked on this manual over the years. We would like to acknowledge especially Dr. Yves Prévost, Anthea Kyle and Sandy Dunning who initially wrote and then worked to improve this manual. Peggy Smith has been the WAC coordinator since 2004, compiling Manual editions 6-9 and this edition. Jane Parker provided valuable input to the 2010 edition. She also provided extensive writing support for our students over a number of years. We thank the faculty and students who have made valuable suggestions for making the manual more user-friendly. �iv CONTENTS PREFACE ....................................................................................................................... II ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ............................................................................................... III INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................. 1 What is WAC? ......................................................................................................... 1 How Does WAC Affect the Student? ....................................................................... 2 The WAC Assessment Process .............................................................................. 2 GENERAL DIRECTIONS ................................................................................................ 4 FORMATTING............................................................................................................. 4 Typing, Paper and Spacing ..................................................................................... 5 Margins ................................................................................................................... 6 Pagination ............................................................................................................... 6 Capitalization........................................................................................................... 7 Errors ...................................................................................................................... 7 PLAGIARISM .............................................................................................................. 7 FORMAT OF AN UNDERGRADUATE REPORT OR ESSAY ......................................... 8 COVER ....................................................................................................................... 8 PRELIMINARY PAGES ............................................................................................... 8 Report ..................................................................................................................... 8 Essay ...................................................................................................................... 8 TITLE PAGE EXAMPLE .......................................................................................... 9 Guidelines for a Title Page ...................................................................................... 9 ABSTRACT EXAMPLE ............................................................................................. 10 Guidelines for an Abstract ..................................................................................... 10 A Note on Keywords ............................................................................................. 12 TABLE OF CONTENTS EXAMPLE .......................................................................... 13 Guidelines for a Table of Contents ........................................................................ 14 LIST OF TABLES EXAMPLE .................................................................................... 14 Guidelines for a List of Tables ............................................................................... 15 LIST OF FIGURES EXAMPLE .................................................................................. 15 Guidelines for a List of Figures.............................................................................. 16 BODY OF THE REPORT OR ESSAY ....................................................................... 16 Reports ................................................................................................................. 16 Essays .................................................................................................................. 19 HEADINGS................................................................................................................ 20 In Technical Reports ............................................................................................. 20 In Essays .............................................................................................................. 21 TABLE EXAMPLE ..................................................................................................... 24 Guidelines for a Table ........................................................................................... 25 Long Tables .......................................................................................................... 26 �v Table Headings ..................................................................................................... 26 Table Sources ....................................................................................................... 27 Table Lines and Spacing ....................................................................................... 27 Table Capitalization and Fonts .............................................................................. 28 Table Footnotes .................................................................................................... 28 FIGURE EXAMPLE ................................................................................................... 29 Guidelines for a Figure .......................................................................................... 30 In-text Reference to a Figure................................................................................. 30 Fitting Figures into Text ......................................................................................... 30 Figure Captions ..................................................................................................... 31 Figure Sources ...................................................................................................... 32 Illustration of Figures ............................................................................................. 32 IN-TEXT LITERATURE CITATIONS ......................................................................... 33 Author-Year System .............................................................................................. 33 Referring to a Source ............................................................................................ 34 Paraphrasing ......................................................................................................... 35 Direct Quotations .................................................................................................. 35 Examples of In-Text Citations ............................................................................... 37 FOOTNOTES IN THE TEXT ..................................................................................... 39 LITERATURE CITED PAGE EXAMPLE ................................................................... 40 Guidelines for a Literature Cited Page .................................................................. 41 Examples of Literature Cited entries ..................................................................... 43 APPENDICES ........................................................................................................... 50 STYLE EXPECTATIONS............................................................................................... 52 GENERAL GUIDELINES FOR REPORTS ................................................................ 52 GENERAL GUIDELINES FOR ESSAYS ................................................................... 53 Writing Concisely .................................................................................................. 54 ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS ....................................................................... 56 INTERNATIONAL SYSTEM OF UNITS (SI).............................................................. 57 Form and Format for SI Units ................................................................................ 58 Form and Format for Numerals ............................................................................. 58 Use of Prefixes with SI Units ................................................................................. 59 Prefixes Forming Decimal Multiples and Sub-multiples of SI Units ....................... 60 Metric Conversion Table ....................................................................................... 60 HYPHENATION ........................................................................................................ 61 DASHES.................................................................................................................... 62 NUMBERS ................................................................................................................ 62 NUMBERED AND BULLETED LISTS ....................................................................... 63 SCIENTIFIC NOMENCLATURE ............................................................................... 64 EQUATIONS, CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND FORMULAE...................................... 65 Guidelines for Presenting Equations and Formulae .............................................. 66 USE OF "I.E." AND "E.G." ......................................................................................... 67 THE UNDERGRADUATE THESIS ................................................................................ 69 Order of Thesis Sections ....................................................................................... 71 �vi Thesis Cover ......................................................................................................... 71 Thesis Title Page .................................................................................................. 73 Example of a Thesis Title Page............................................................................. 74 Library Rights and Caution to the Reader ............................................................. 75 Example of a Library Rights Statement ................................................................. 75 A Caution to the Reader ........................................................................................ 76 Example of a Caution to the Reader ..................................................................... 76 Abstract ................................................................................................................. 76 Contents ................................................................................................................ 77 Figures and Tables ............................................................................................... 77 Acknowledgements ............................................................................................... 77 Introduction of the Thesis ...................................................................................... 77 Literature Review .................................................................................................. 79 Binding .................................................................................................................. 80 Thesis Guidelines.................................................................................................. 80 PROFESSIONAL EMAIL ............................................................................................... 86 �1 If you have writing skills …, come and talk to me because I probably have a summer job for you. Peter Barynin, Forest Sector Competitiveness Secretariat Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources, 2006 INTRODUCTION This manual outlines the format to be followed by students in the Faculty of Natural Resources Management when they are submitting essays, technical reports, undergraduate and graduate theses. Term papers and written assignments should meet the standards set out in this manual. Use the checklist on the back inside cover to help you familiarize yourself with the basic format and style requirements. Individual professors may indicate format and style preferences that they wish students to follow. If you are in doubt, check with the professor for whom you are preparing material, and follow the professor’s preferred writing guidelines. What is WAC? In 1996, the Faculty initiated its Writing Across the Curriculum (WAC) program for its students. The intent of WAC is to improve communication skills by providing more and varied occasions in all natural resources management courses for students to write and speak publicly. Rather than having students take a first-year writing course offered by the English department, a writing consultant was hired to support students as they work to meet the communication needs identified by faculty and industry professionals. Working together, professors and the writing consultant design writing and speaking assignments to offer a more integrated program that addresses specific skills and offers increased feedback and support to students. �2 How Does WAC Affect the Student? The Faculty applies the WAC approach in all of its courses; however, certain courses over the first three years of both the HBScF and HBEM programs are designated as WAC courses in which students must achieve a pass. By 4th year, students are expected to have reached a satisfactory writing level. The WAC courses are NRMT 0190, 0290 and 0390. All students must register in these courses. Student achievement (pass or fail) is assessed in the following courses for both programs: • NRMT 0190, WAC I—NRMT 1010, Canadian Forest Plant Species • NRMT 0290, WAC II—NRMT 2210, Forest Ecology & Silvics • NRMT 0390, WAC III—NRMT 2054, Aboriginal Peoples & Natural Resources Students are coached and assessed in writing skills by instructors of the Faculty of Natural Resources Management and a WAC Consultant. The WAC Assessment Process The writing consultant will assess each student's writing skills in designated assignments. If the writing skills are not at a passing level in an assignment, the student must complete the following upgrading process: 1. Sign up for an appointment on the sign-up sheet outside the WAC office (BB1017A) to schedule a conference with the writing consultant. The conference will review writing skills, create a personal proofreading checklist to use when writing future papers, practice careful editing, and set a deadline for resubmission. 2. Resubmit a polished, revised paper along with your original paper, clearly showing the changes you have made, and the original rubric. �3 3. If you do not receive a Pass on this resubmission, you will repeat step l and, for major problems, step 2. Sample WAC Evaluation Rubric UNSATISFACTORY DEVELOPING PASS PASS/PROFICIENT Major problems with format, grammatical correctness, and/or style impede reader comprehension. The writer’s message can be understood, but significant improvement is needed in format, grammatical correctness, and/or style. Ideas are communicated fairly clearly, and the writer is approaching competency in format, grammatical correctness, and style. The writer communicates ideas clearly, showing a mature style and a confident command of format and writing conventions. WRITING SKILLS Unsatisfactory 1 FORMAT Faculty Writing Report/essay components and organization Manual is seldom Use of tables and figures used as a guide. Literature citations Scientific Writing conventions: abbreviations, acronyms, scientific nomenclature, etc. GRAMMATICAL CORRECTNESS Major errors Spelling impede comprehension. Apostrophe use Capitalization Punctuation Grammar and usage Sentence structure: Avoiding fragments and runon sentences STYLE Frequent lapses Precise diction (word choice) impede comprehension. Clear syntax (arrangement of words) Organization: Ideas are developed around a clear sense of purpose or thesis statement Development of ideas with specific details Sense of audience: Use of a formal style for an academic audience. (Avoid contractions and colloquial language.) 1 See Writing across the Curriculum Manual and Style Guide for particulars Developing Pass Pass/ Proficient Faculty Writing Manual is sometimes used as a guide. Faculty Writing Manual is used as a guide with only one or two lapses. Faculty Writing Manual is consistently used as a guide. Frequent errors lower the reader’s confidence in the writer’s competency. Writer is approaching competency. The conventions of the English language are used with confidence. Extensive revision is essential. Some revision is needed. The writer has a mature, effective style. For writing assistance, see Natural Resources Management Writing Consultant Office: BB1017JA REMEMBER TO E-MAIL YOUR MARKED PAPER; IT IS AN EXCELLENT LEARNING TOOL! �4 GENERAL DIRECTIONS This Manual covers style, grammatical and formatting issues. However, writing a good paper is not just about getting the format right, as essential as this is. There are a myriad of resources to help you learn to write a good paper, including the Faculty Writing Consultant and Lakehead University’s Writing Centre. Additionally, there are writing manuals available in the Library and sources online. A good example is Teaching Academic Writing: A Toolkit for Higher Education (Coffin et al. 2003). The book can be found online and includes a helpful diagram that summarizes the steps in the academic writing process. FORMATTING The following items are mandatory format details, and although they seem inflexible, they are typical of the requirements you would have to follow if you were to submit a paper for publication to a refereed journal. Get used to these few details; they are constants in your undergraduate documents. If an individual professor’s preferences vary from what is presented here, follow the professor’s preferred guidelines. Not all formatting and grammar issues are addressed in this manual. You may want to consult other sources for further direction. Two recommended references are: Canadian Journal of Forest Research. 2009. Instructions to authors. http://pubs.nrccnrc.gc.ca/eng/journals/instructions/cjfr.html. Sept. 5, 2009. The Canadian Style: A Guide to Writing and Editing. 2nd Edition. 1997. Dundurn Press Ltd., Toronto, Ontario. 312 pp. �5 Style Manual Committee, Council of Biology Editors. 1999. Scientific Style and Format. The CBE Manual for Authors, Editors and Publishers. 6th Edition. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK. 825 pp. Most students use Microsoft Word software which has a “Styles” function under the “Home” tab. You can set up and save a template with this WORD TIP: You can quickly set up a Word template by saving an already formatted Word document in the Template folder. See http://wordprocessing.about.com/od/m icrosoftword2007/a/FastWord2007Te mplates.htm. Manual’s formatting requirements so that the software will automatically do the formatting. You will then be able to spend more time on the content of your assignments, rather than formatting. Word also allows you to mark text so that a Table of Contents will be automatically generated. Use the Help button in Word to find out more about the software features or see Shaun Kelly’s “Making the Most of Word in Your Business” at http://shaunakelly.com/word. Typing, Paper and Spacing • Essays and reports must be typewritten in plain typeface, such as Times New Roman or Arial, in a 12-point font. • The bold function is generally not used at WORD TIP: Although there is still debate, because of the software, the common practice is to use one space following a period or colon (except in journal citations where there is no space following the colon after the volume/issue number and preceding the page numbers of the article. all, and underlining is used sparingly. • A medium-weight bond paper, 21.5 by 28 cm in size, without punched holes, is to be used. • Text is usually double-spaced, although single spacing should be used for quotations longer than three lines, for footnotes, in the Abstract, in some tables, in lists of tables and figures, in headings of WORD TIP: Word has 3 functions which help to control dangling text at the end of a page—widow/orphan control, keep text together and keep lines together. You will find these functions under the Paragraph tab. �6 more than one line, within Literature Cited entries, and in appendices. • Print on one side of the paper only. • Avoid “hanging headings” where the heading is at the bottom of the page. Margins Set up page margins for all papers as follows: • Left margin: 4.0 cm (to allow room for binding) • Top, bottom, right margins: 2.5 cm • First order headings begin 4.0 cm from the top of the page; other headings and text begin at top margin (2.5 cm). WORD TIP: Word Styles (found under the Home tab) allows you to modify a Heading style. For the 4.0 cm spacing for Order 1 Headings, right click on Heading 1, then select “modify”. Under the format button, click Paragraph, In the Spacing boxes, put 42.5 points before and 15 points after. Click OK. Pagination • All pages, except the title page and appendix divider, are to bear a number. • Preliminary pages that occur before the first page of the text proper are to be numbered with lower-case Roman numerals (i.e., i, ii, WORD TIP: To change the page number format in Word, use a section break (under Page Layout, Page Setup, Breaks). This allows you to tell Word to change from Roman to Arabic numerals. iii), centred at the top of the page and without embellishments (e.g., dashes, periods, parentheses). • Although the title page bears no number, it is considered to be page i. Pages in the text proper are numbered consecutively in Arabic numerals (i.e., 1, 2, 3). Numerals, also without embellishments, are centred in the top margin or header of each page, 1.27 cm from the top of the page. �7 Capitalization This manual describes requirements for capitalization in headings, tables, figures and literature cited. In the body of the text, many students unnecessarily capitalize. Capitals are required only to distinguish proper nouns from common ones. Errors Submitted written assignments are an indication of a student’s academic skills and rigour, and it is the student’s responsibility to ensure that submissions are professionally done. All assignments must be proofread for accuracy of data, adherence to assignment requirements and quality of writing. PLAGIARISM Understanding what constitutes plagiarism is the best way to ensure you have not plagiarized in your assignments. If you copy someone else’s work or ideas without credit, you are plagiarizing. Plagiarism extends to sharing, word for word, the data or results of a partnered experiment in labs. To ensure that you are not plagiarizing your sources, keep careful notes when you are doing research. When writing, give credit for verbatim quotations or paraphrased ideas (ones that you have put into your own words) by citing the author and year in parentheses. When in doubt, choose the most cautious route, and cite your source. University regulations on plagiarism and its penalties are described in the University calendar. �8 FORMAT OF AN UNDERGRADUATE REPORT OR ESSAY COVER The first page of a technical report (which is optional) can be a cover that includes the title of the work and the author’s name. Other than those two restrictions, the cover can be as creative as the writer wishes. PRELIMINARY PAGES Report Most reports contain at least the following preliminary pages in the order given: a title page, an abstract, and a table of contents. Other pages following the table of contents are added as appropriate: tables, figures, acknowledgements. Essay Unless otherwise specified, essays should have a title page. Instructors might request other preliminary pages for an essay (i.e., cover page, table of contents, tables and figures), but ordinarily these are not required. �9 TITLE PAGE EXAMPLE ______________________________________________________________________ IMPACTS OF TIMBER HARVESTING ON WILDLIFE HABITAT by Courtenay Lavallée NRMT 3219, Fish & Wildlife Habitat Dr. Brian McLaren Faculty of Natural Resources Management Lakehead University January 15, 2013 ______________________________________________________________________ Guidelines for a Title Page The following information must appear on an essay or report’s title page: • title, centred, single-spaced, in capital letters, in the upper half of the page; • author’s full name, centred, upper and lower case letters, just below title; • course number, course title, and instructor's name; and • date of submission, centred, 8 cm from the bottom of the page. �10 ABSTRACT EXAMPLE _____________________________________________________________________ ii ABSTRACT Drennan, D.J. 1999. Forest engineering manual for assessing areas with terrain stability concerns in coastal British Columbia. 28 pp. Keywords: cohesion, shear strength, shear stress, slope failure, slope movement, slope stability, superficial material, terrain stability assessment, texture Terrain stability assessments are an integral part of forest planning in British Columbia. The purpose of assessments is to identify areas or instability and make prescriptions to prevent damage to forest resources. Factors that influence slope stability, types of slope movements common to coastal British Columbia, and the effects of forestry practices on slope stability are reviewed. A manual that describes the factors influencing slope stability--soil properties, geology and geomorphology, bedrock, vegetation and hydrology--is included. Diagnostic keys to determine landslide hazard rating and type of slope movement are provided. An actual terrain stability assessment report for a proposed harvest operation by MacMillan Bloedel on southwest Vancouver Island is discussed. The results of the assessment are compared with the procedure presented in the manual section. Comparisons between the manual diagnostic keys and the example report indicated results of the landslide hazard ratings were similar. ______________________________________________________________________ Guidelines for an Abstract An abstract is an information summary of a report or thesis designed to give the reader a clear idea of the scope and contents of the longer work. Because requests from outside agencies for copies of the report are made on the basis of the abstract alone, the information must be complete yet concise. • An abstract includes: 1. a full citation (author, title, date and number of pages); 2. keywords in alphabetical order; and �11 3. a concise summary of the contents of the report, following the sequence of the report itself: problem/scope, methods, results, discussion, and conclusion. • In an abstract, avoid general, non-specific statements such as “The implications of the results were discussed." • The first order heading, ABSTRACT, is to be capitalized and centred, 4.0 cm below the top margin. • The citation of the abstract should begin 1.5 cm below the heading. • The abstract itself may be single-spaced and should occupy no more than one page; an abstract for an undergraduate report will usually be one paragraph, or approximately 600 words. A length guideline used by journals recommends that you use one line of abstract text for each page of text. • Follow these specific rules when writing abstracts: 1. Single space the full citation, with a hanging indent of 1.27 cm on the second line. 2. Skip one line. 3. Include at least three keywords in alphabetical order; single space if keywords take up more than one line. 4. Skip two lines. 5. Single space the text of the abstract (double space if text is brief). 6. Keep abstract to one page in length. Distance from the top of the first line of the title to the bottom of the last line of the text must not exceed 16.5 cm. �12 A Note on Keywords Many journals and institutions require the author(s) to provide keywords or descriptions and, in formal reports, you will also be required to submit an abstract with a full citation and keywords. The use of keywords helps the abstractor or reader catalogue the report under the proper subject areas. • The following subject areas are often included as keywords: 1. the science or area of the report (e.g., tree biology, forest genetics); 2. special techniques employed or developed in the report (e.g., vegetative innoculum, root regeneration potential); and 3. the name(s) of the organisms used in the study; include the common name and the scientific name—white pine (Pinus strobus L.)—or the geographical region, if it is important (e.g., northwestern Ontario). • Terms of more than one word (e.g., vegetative innoculum) are considered as one keyword. • These keywords, usually numbering between five and ten, are listed alphabetically, in lower case, except for proper nouns, and are separated by commas. �13 TABLE OF CONTENTS EXAMPLE ______________________________________________________________________ iii CONTENTS ABSTRACT ii TABLES iii FIGURES iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS v INTRODUCTION 1 METHODOLOGY Regional Variables Community Variables Forest/Stand Variables Individual Tree Variables 3 5 6 8 10 RESULTS Program Inputs Program Outputs 11 11 13 DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION 16 LITERATURE CITED 20 APPENDIX I RATIONAL METHOD SURFACE COEFFICIENT 22 APPENDIX II SPECIES VALUE, LOCATION AND CONDITION VALUE EXPLANATIONS 23 ______________________________________________________________________ �14 Guidelines for a Table of Contents • The table of contents sets forth all the subdivisions of the work. WORD TIP: Word will automatically generate your Contents if you use Styles to mark your headings. Use References, Table of Contents to generate the Contents section. • The table of contents is titled CONTENTS. • Begin the list of headings 4.0 cm below the top of the page. • Justify page numbers corresponding to each subdivision along the right margin. • When appendices are used, the titles appear in sequence using Roman numerals. • The cover, title page, contents page and appendix divider page are not listed in the table of contents. LIST OF TABLES EXAMPLE ____________________________________________________________________ iv TABLES Table Page 1. Coefficients of determination with and without I/A included among the variables 9 2. Coefficients of determination for breast height growth regressions with 5 estimators 10 3. Best 5-X regression equations for breast height growth 12 4. Coefficients of determination for growth regressions with 5 and 6 estimators 15 ______________________________________________________________________ �15 Guidelines for a List of Tables • The list of tables is titled Tables. It starts on a new page, with the title centred and 4.0 cm below the margin. • List the full headings of the numbered tables used in the text. • List the table headings in sequence, by number. Place the page on which each table occurs (or begins) along the right margin. • Table captions may be single-spaced, but a double space must be left between titles. • If you include a table in an appendix, it should not be included in the Tables. • For short reports that have few tables, you may list the tables in the sequence in which they appear in the Table of Contents. LIST OF FIGURES EXAMPLE ____________________________________________________________________ v FIGURES Figure Page 1. Infinite slope model 2 2. Different particle shapes 4 3. Basic types of slope configuration 7 4. Key for determining hazard rating of slopes with past activity 13 5. Key for determining hazard rating of slopes with fine textured material 14 6. Key for determining hazard rating of slopes with coarse textured material 17 �16 Guidelines for a List of Figures • A list of figures is titled FIGURES. The title is centered 4.0 cm below the top margin. • The figures listed must contain the complete caption (or a summary of a caption where the complete caption contains extensive explanatory material). • The page number on which each illustration occurs (or begins) appears on the right margin. • Titles may be single-spaced, but double space between titles. • A figure in an appendix should not be included in the Figures. • For short reports that have few figures, the figures may be listed in the sequence they appear in the table of Contents. BODY OF THE REPORT OR ESSAY Each major section of the technical report or essay following the introduction should be more or less complete in itself, and should convey a whole message on the intended subject matter. The section’s scope should be outlined in a paragraph or two, and should be brought to a conclusion so that the subject matter is presented completely. Headings must be chosen with care, and sections must contain meaningful material that warrants their separation. Headings do not replace text; they are signposts only, and the work must read coherently without the titles. Reports Divisions: Most reports have four divisions: �17 1. introductory material, which includes the necessary background and a hypothesis or purpose of the investigation; 2. the methods used to complete the investigation; 3. an account of the investigation and its results; and 4. discussion, conclusion and recommendations (if any are made). The organization and distribution of content should follow a logical sequence so that each subsection represents an important division of the subject investigated and discussed. Headings used will reflect the category of material discussed. Introduction • The introduction provides background information about the subject and states the goals of the investigation. • Normally, an introduction briefly answers five of six “journalist’s questions": What? When? Who? Where? and Why? The goal of the investigation (why) is often the last statement of the introduction. • As well, you may be required to have a literature review in your introduction. • Presentation of methods and results should not be included in this section. Methods • The sixth journalist’s question, How?, is developed in the Methods section, and it describes in detail the equipment and techniques used to complete the investigation. • Write in your own words, but use the third person; care must be taken that no first or second person pronouns appear. Instead, choose a passive construction to �18 eliminate a subject; e.g., “Measurements were taken of each sample and recorded.” • If any of the work involves mathematical calculations, explain where the equations come from, including sample calculations in your work. You must show that you have understood what you have done in the lab. Results • Do not begin the results section with a table or figure. Each table or figure must be referred to in the text before it appears in the report. • The results section contains objective descriptions of what was discovered through investigation. Essentially, you are answering the question: “What do the data show?” • Begin the results section with an introductory passage that tells readers what they will find in the section. Summarize briefly what the tables and figures will show, then proceed with detailed explanations and tables and/or figures. • You should not comment on the results; simply report them, in paragraph form, using explanatory text and tables and/or figures. • Tables and figures are used to support, not replace, the text. Table and figure contents must be summarized as needed for clarity. • Ordinarily, the results section is written in the past tense. Discussion • The discussion section explains the significance of the results and contains insights into the thesis or data presented. �19 • Typically, a discussion looks at questions such as: “How do the results relate to the problem or hypothesis presented in the assignment?” or “What are the practical applications that can be drawn from the results?” In addition, deficiencies that have come to light in the report are discussed. • Your conclusions must be supported by your results. Conclusion • A conclusion is a final, brief summary of what can be drawn from the results. • Major points might be restated and conclusions or solutions summarized. • When appropriate, recommendations are made. Essays An essay usually includes three sections: an introduction, the body, and a conclusion. Introduction • Identify the subject, including background material relevant to the topic. • State your thesis (the controlling idea). • Define key terms where necessary. • State your organizational plan. Since the introduction acts as a blueprint, you need to indicate the structure your essay will follow. Often you can indicate your organizational plan with a statement of the major points (or subtopics) you will discuss. • Sometimes a literature review is included as part of an introduction. �20 The Body • The body of the essay moves through the subject matter in the sequence described in the introduction. • Each major point (or subtopic) is identified and discussed. All major points in the essay should support the thesis claim made, and supporting information should relate directly to both the major points and the thesis. • When you introduce each major point (or subtopic), include a topic sentence which repeats key words for your thesis. These key words will help your reader follow your argument. • Include sufficient supporting evidence, using in-text literature citations. (See the section on In-Text Citations for details.) The Conclusion • The conclusion might summarize the essay, articulate the significance of the subject matter, or make recommendations based on the essay’s findings. A wellwritten conclusion leaves the impression that the subject has been adequately discussed and any questions or “holes” have been covered. HEADINGS In Technical Reports If the essay is of sufficient length and complexity, headings are useful signposts for the reader and can be a valuable organizational device for the writer. However, they are not necessary and should be used sparingly as they tend to disrupt the flow of the writing. Check with your instructor about specific preferences regarding format. �21 In technical reports, headings are used for subdivisions of subject matter within the text; thus they serve to break up a mass of text into meaningful sections and act as signposts to aid reader comprehension. In Essays Headings are less frequently used in essays, but can be useful if the information you are presenting is detailed or particularly complex. Spacing, capitalization and font are used to distinguish the six levels/orders of headings. Specific instructions when using headings Heading Placement • Centre first order headings and place them 4.0 cm below the top of the page; other headings are placed 2.5 cm below the top of the page and 1.5 cm after previous text. (Word also uses points as a measurement. One centimetre = 28.3 points; therefore 1.5 cm = 42.5 points, 2.5 cm = 71 points and 4 cm = 113 points. See Word Tip on p. 5 for setting 1st order headings.) • Place second and third order headings along the left margin. • Indent fourth order headings .7 cm (six spaces) from the left margin. • Indent fifth and sixth order headings tab space (1 cm) from the left margin. • Place second to sixth order headings 1.5 cm after previous line of text. • Begin the next line of text 1.5 cm after the heading after first, second, third and fourth order headings. • When using fifth and sixth order headings, continue text two spaces after the period which ends the heading �22 • Headings requiring more than one line are single spaced. Heading sequence • Heading sequence depends on the number of orders of headings required in the work, but you should always begin with level one and move through in order. For example, if you need five types of headings, choose first, second, third, fourth and fifth. • Typical first order headings include CONTENTS, LIST OF TABLES, LIST OF FIGURES, INTRODUCTION, METHODS, RESULTS, DISCUSSION, CONCLUSION(S) and LITERATURE CITED. Other Heading Requirements • Headings are extras to the text, and should be removable without affecting the coherence or completeness of the text. • No references to the headings should appear in the text of the report or essay. • Note that in the following heading orders, bold and italic functions are not used. • First and second order headings appear in uppercase letters; third, fourth and fifth orders have initial capitals on key words; and sixth order headings have only the first word of the heading capitalized. Third, fourth, fifth and sixth order headings are underlined. �23 • The system of headings to be used is as follows: 1st Order CENTRED, CAPITALS AND NOT UNDERLINED 2nd Order CAPITALS, ALONG LEFT MARGIN AND NOT UNDERLINED 3rd Order Initial Capitals on Key Words, Along Left Margin, Underlined 4th Order Initial Capitals on Key Words, Indented Six Spaces, Underlined 5th Order Initial Capitals on Key Words, Indented One Tab, Underlined, Ends with a Period. First word capitalized, indented one tab, underlined, ends with a period. 6th Order WORD TIP: When using Styles to format headings, modify to put in capitals and underlining for various orders of headings under the Format, Font section. �24 TABLE EXAMPLE _____________________________________________________________________ … no significant difference in number of tree per plot between irrigated (4 species/ plot) and non-irrigated (5 species/plot) areas (Table 1). Tree density in the non-irrigated area (531 stems/ha) was significantly different from the irrigated area (355 stems/ ha). The non-irrigated area had more aspen (Populus sp.) than the irrigated area. Table 1. Meana overstory (≥11cm in diameter) number of species per 0.04 ha plot, density, basal area, and stocking for tree, shrub, and total species in irrigated and non-irrigated areas (Larrick and Bowersox 1999). Species group area Tree Irrigated Non-irrigated Shrub Irrigated Non-irrigated Total Irrigated Non-irrigated a Number of species Density Basal area Stocking Per plot Stems/ha m2/ha Percent 4a 5a 355 b 531 a 19 b 27 a 73 b 100 a <1 a <1 a 6a 5a <1 a <1 a - 5a 5a 361 b 536 a 20 b 27 a 73 b 100 a Means with the same letter are not significantly different (α = 0.05). The irrigated area had more ash (Fraxinus sp.) and mockernut hickory (Carya tomentosa Lam. Ex Poir) stems than the non-irrigated area, but the numbers of ash and hickory were low for both areas. ______________________________________________________________________ �25 Guidelines for a Table A simple array of facts can be suitably presented in the text of the report or essay, either following a colon or in tabular form. However, most data are best presented in a formal table. The purpose of the table is to clarify, not confuse. Complicated data should be divided into two tables. Tables also help readers to compare factual or numerical information. Data which add to the overall presentation, but which are not necessary to an understanding of the points being made, should be included in an appendix which then is referred to in the text. In-text Reference to Tables and Figures • Before you present data in a table or figure, you must introduce the table, briefly explaining the data in sentence form. • For the reader’s convenience, each table and figure is numbered, using Arabic numbers that begin the caption. • Tables and figures are referred to by number (not title) in the text. • Tables or figures are placed as close to the reference as possible; no table or figure should be continued from one page to the next unless it is unavoidable. Fitting Tables into Text • To fit onto one page, a table can be reduced in size, placed in landscape orientation, or presented as a foldout. • If the table appears alone on the page, it should be centred vertically and horizontally. �26 • A table should not extend into the normal margins of the page. • Pagination continues normally on pages with tables. • If a table has more than one part, each part is designated by a capital letter and sub-heading (which is not to be listed in the table of contents). Long Tables • Very long tables can be presented on more than one page; in this case, the word “Table,” the table number, a period and the word “Continued” in parentheses (e.g., “Table 1.2. (continued)” should be placed in the table heading position). • Headings within the table must be repeated in full on each subsequent page. However, the bottom horizontal line is inserted only at the end of the table, not at the bottom of each page. This convention serves to tell the reader that the table is not yet complete. • If data are summed for each page, the subtotal should appear at the end of the row or column on the page, and subtotals should appear at the beginning of the row or column on the subsequent page. Table Headings • A table heading/caption should concisely convey the nature and scope of the data presented without being long-winded. • Punctuation can be used to help convey the message (colons can be particularly useful). �27 • Table headings are placed above the table. The heading begins along the left margin with the word “Table”, followed by the Arabic number, a period and one space. • The first word in the table caption begins with a capital, but no other words, except proper nouns, are capitalized. • \The caption ends with a period. Table Sources A table source should be acknowledged. If the table uses data from another author’s work, the source is indicated in a parenthetical reference (e.g., (Smith 1997)) at the end of the caption. The reference does not form part of the heading caption in the List of Tables. A table source can also be referenced at the bottom of the table itself. Table Lines and Spacing • Tables should be presented in the most reader-friendly way possible. Neatness, spacing, quantity and quality of information are important considerations for the writer. • A table is to be separated from the text by a solid horizontal line, typed one single space below the last line of the heading. • The bottom of the table is indicated by a solid horizontal line that is placed one single space below the last item in the table. • Use white space, not lines, to separate material in the table, leaving enough space between lines and columns so that data can be easily read. Judicious use of horizontal lines and spaces within and between the columns of data should �28 clearly indicate how the table should be read. Avoid the use of solid (or partial) lines between the columns and rows. Vertical rulings should be avoided where the table content can be effectively presented without them. Table Capitalization and Fonts • The following words are capitalized: “Table”; the first word in the caption; and proper nouns. No other words in the title/caption are capitalized. The initial letter of the first words in column and row headings and sub-headings should be capitalized. • Text font should be of sufficient size to be easily read. For uniform appearance, use the same font as that of the report. Avoid using bold and italics. Table Footnotes • Use superscript lower case letters (e.g., 20.6a) to refer to footnotes for a table. If letters cause confusion (e.g., when equations are presented), asterisks, daggers or minute numerals may be used instead; however, the recognized use of asterisks to indicate statistical significance must be respected. • Footnote references appear serially from left to right, line to line, within each table. The footnote itself (and other explanatory notes if required) should be placed a double space below the bottom solid horizontal line of the table. • Each letter or other footnote designation is to be indented five spaces from the table margin and is followed by explanatory text. • Footnotes of more than one line should be single spaced. A double space separates two different footnotes for the same table. �29 • If a table is longer than one page, the footnote is placed at the end of the table, not at the bottom of the page where the footnote has been designated. FIGURE EXAMPLE ________________________________________________________________ The study results support the hypothesis that the height of Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziessi Mirb.) exceeds the height of paper birch (Betula papyrifera Marsh.) at an earlier age at the coastal site than at the interior site. However, it does not mean that the paper birch will die out quickly once Douglas fir grows higher. In fact, a few paper birch trees survive for a relatively long period (40 years after the height curves crossover) in a Douglas-fir stand at the coastal site. The almost parallel height growth curves observed in this study reflect this phenomenon (Figure 4). 40 Height (m) 30 a. Coastal site 20 10 0 0 20 40 Age (yr) 60 80 40 Height (m) 30 b. Interior site 20 Paper birch Douglas-fir 10 0 0 20 40 Age (yr) 60 80 Figure 4. Comparison of functional plots of paper birch and Douglas-fir height growth at �30 the coastal and interior sites in British Columbia (Wang and Kimmins 2002). Guidelines for a Figure Any illustration, such as a photograph, map, drawing, chart or graph that is used in the body of the report or essay is a figure. Figures are used to graphically support the information presented. The purpose of the figure is to enhance the reader’s understanding, not to decorate the page, and gratuitous use of figures should be avoided. Figures can help readers to visualize or compare data. However, as with tables, a figure that is not necessary to an understanding of the points being made should be included in an appendix which then is referred to in the text. In-text Reference to a Figure • Before presenting a figure, briefly introduce the information contained in a figure in sentence form in the text of your report. • Like tables, each figure is numbered, using Arabic numerals which begin the figure’s caption. • Figures are referred to by number (not title) in the text of the report. • The figure is placed as close to the reference as possible. Fitting Figures into Text • The rules governing use of figures are similar to those regarding tables, so use your common sense when including figures in a report. • To fit onto one page, a figure can be reduced in size, placed in a landscape orientation, or presented as a foldout. �31 • If the figure appears alone on the page, it should be centred vertically and horizontally. • A figure should not extend into the normal margins of the page. Pagination continues normally on pages occupied by figures. • If a figure has more than one part, each part is designated by a capital letter and sub-heading (which is not to be listed in the table of contents). • Set figures off from the text with white space; borders are not necessary. Figure Captions • A figure caption should concisely convey the nature and scope of the data presented without being long-winded. • If it is necessary that the caption contain a legend or extensive explanatory material, then the first part of the caption is to be sufficiently descriptive to act as a title. Only the title portion of the caption is to be included in the List of Figures. • Punctuation can be used to help convey the message. (Colons can be particularly useful). • Figure headings are placed below the figure. The heading begins along the left margin with the word “Figure,” followed by the Arabic number, a period and one space. • The first word in the caption begins with a capital, but no other words, except proper nouns, are capitalized. • The caption ends with a period. �32 • A figure uses the same font as in the text. Avoid using bold and italics in figure captions. Figure Sources If the figure has been redrawn from the work of another author/illustrator, the source is to be indicated in a parenthetical reference [e.g., (Jones 1997)] at the end of the caption. The reference does not form part of the heading caption in the list of figures. Illustration of Figures • Consider the appearance of a diagram, chart, graph or drawing you wish to include as a figure in your report. The type of information and the quality of the graphic are important considerations for the writer. Therefore, font size and type should be similar to that of the report or essay. If you are using a smaller font size, make sure it is easily reproduced and read. • If photographs are not presented electronically, they must be permanently mounted on the page, either using glue or dry mounting tissue. Do not tape photographs to the page. • Letters and symbols not on your key can be hand-lettered or stencilled. • Parts of figures (A, B, etc.) must be clearly identified and the parts placed in sequence for ease of reader reference, with a caption placed below each part of the figure. • If a figure, because of its length, is continued on a second (or more) page, the word “Figure,” the figure number, a period, and the word “Continued” in �33 parentheses, are to be placed in the figure caption portion of each page where the continuation occurs. IN-TEXT LITERATURE CITATIONS Most of the reports you write while at university require that you refer to existing literature related to the subject you are studying. Proper use of literature is therefore an integral part of your submissions. Citing the work of others is accepted academic practice, and is done to indicate that the literature used: 1) conveys background material about a subject; 2) indicates how other work is related to the topic; 3) presents a model or method used in the work being reported; 4) substantiates a point/opinion you are expressing; and (5) provides additional information about a point. As the writer, you use the work of others to justify information/work presented, interpret results or data presented, and support ideas in the text. Using the actual words and ideas of another WORD TIP: Word allows you to mark your in-text citations to automatically generate a bibliography. Use References, Citations & Bibliography. without crediting the source constitutes plagiarism. Therefore, it is vital that proper citation is used. Author-Year System • Use the author-year system for in-text citations (e.g., (Prévost 2001)). • There is no comma between the author and year. • In-text citations, which denote sources, are parenthetical and are made immediately after the material appears in the essay or report. • When citing information from long works (i.e., in excess of 50 pages), include appropriate page number(s) after the year of publication to indicate where the �34 information was located in the text (e.g., Ross 1995:247). Some journals require this practice for all citations. • When citing information from online sources, follow the same author-year format. • A citation in parentheses made at the end of a sentence must have a period after it because the parenthetical reference is considered part of the sentence. In this case, omit the period at the end of the quotation or paraphrase that precedes the beginning of the parenthetical reference. Referring to a Source • A source is referred to in one of two ways: either by quoting directly or indirectly. • Direct quotations are verbatim (exactly as written/said) copying of another’s work, and the words are enclosed in quotation marks. Quoting directly from another is sometimes unavoidable, but it is not encouraged, especially in scientific papers (e.g., lab reports). • The preferred method of using a source is to summarize or paraphrase, in your own words, the author’s ideas or findings. Paraphrasing is preferred over direct quotation because it indicates that you have interpreted the outside source correctly and therefore have completed worthwhile research. As well, a paraphrase written in your own words makes for a seamless writing style that is more appealing to the reader. • A paraphrase is always followed by an in-text citation. �35 Paraphrasing • Learning to summarize or paraphrase well is vital to your academic writing so that you can support your ideas and indicate to the reader you are presenting thoughtful, researched material. • Any summary of material from another source ends with an in-text citation using the author-year method. When an in-text citation occurs at the end of a sentence, the period comes after the in-text citation. For example: “Forest management models could be derived from binary search and simulation (Davis 1987).” Direct Quotations • When quoting directly, be careful to use only the material relevant to your point. • Generally, avoid using quotations to end an essay. If you do use a quotation as part of a conclusion, comment on what the author has said to bring your essay to a close. Setting off Direct Quotations from the Text • Quotation marks are used to enclose any direct quotation or each part of a direct quotation if the quotation itself is interrupted by text. • Quotations of fewer than four lines, or any quotation used as part of a sentence, should be treated as part of the paragraph in which they occur, and are simply set off from the rest of the text by quotation marks. • A quotation used as part of a sentence, other than at the start, does not begin with a capital letter (although it might be capitalized in the original) unless it forms a complete statement. �36 • Place commas and periods within closing quotation marks, whether or not they were included in the original material. For example: Ross and Smith (2002) contend that “tenure reform, and the discarding of sustained yield as the core principle of forest policies, is key to achieving these new objectives of sustainability.” • Long quotations are set off from the text by single-spacing and indenting five spaces (1 cm) from both the left and right margins. In long quotations, quotation marks are not used; the indentations and single-spacing replace quotation marks. The Council of Biology editors (1999) describe excerpts and quotations as follows: Short passages taken from another text are usually efficiently presented as quotations with relevant punctuation in the line of the text quoting them; such quotations are sometimes called “run-in quotations”. Long passages may be more effectively presented as excerpts distinguished from the text into which they are inserted by special typographical devices. Use of [sic] • Direct quotations must be made exactly, except where you have modified a capital letter beginning a partial quotation that is used as part of a sentence. • If an error occurs in the original quotation (for example, in spelling, grammar or data), recognize the error by inserting [sic] after the error. • The word “sic” means “thus” or “so” in Latin, and you use it to indicate to the reader that you recognize an error has occurred in the original. Use of Ellipsis • If you omit portions of a quotation less than one paragraph in length, use an ellipsis, three periods with no space between (…), but with a space before and �37 after the ellipsis. When the omission occurs at the end of the sentence, use a period before the ellipsis. Examples of In-Text Citations NOTE: There is no comma between the author and the date. 1. In its simplest form, the citation is placed at the end of a sentence. Example: ... which is a major cause of earthworm distribution (Reynolds 1977). NOTE: The period to end the sentence goes after the in-text citation. 2. When you name the author in the sentence, the citation includes only the date, which appears immediately after the author’s name. Examples: Meyer (1994) analyzed the effects on fire … … the character of these plots was examined by Barnes (1998). NOTE: Use this method sparingly to keep the focus on the topic, not an author. 3. Two joint authors: Examples: … a second study (Carmean and Hahn 1983) indicated … Parker and Bohm (1979) have introduced … 4. More than two joint authors: Examples: … show the annual growth (Smith et al. 2000). Brown et al. (1997) reported … NOTE: Use a period after et al. because it is an abbreviation. NOTE: Use et al. in the text, but write out the complete list of authors in the Literature Cited section. 5. Two separate articles by two different authors with similar information cited. Example: … juvenile period is passed (Meyer 1945; Reynolds 1976). 6. Corporate author: Examples: … the Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources has published a new forest management planning manual (OMNR 2006). The Canadian Forest Service publishes an annual State of Canada’s Forests report. This year’s report (CFS 2013) explores … 7. For a book of more than 50 pages, page number(s) should be included: Example: … under the circumstances (Ross 1995:247). NOTE: After the date, add a colon and the page number or numbers (247-248). 8. Authors' initials are used with last name when two well-known authors are in the same field, or where two authors having the same surname are cited in work. �38 Example: … number of tree species (W.H. Meyer 1945). W.A. Meyer (1942) gave the number of … 9. One specific article and additional unspecified material. Example: Especially noteworthy is the work of Michaelsen, Stephenson, Gates and their followers (Reynolds and Reinecke 1976 and many others). 10. More than one cited article by the same author in the same year. Example: … against biomass per acre (Reynolds 1976c). 11. Two separate articles by two different authors with similar information cited: Example: … juvenile period is passed (Meyer 1945; Jones 1976). 12. Several articles: Example: Other presentations by Gates (1972), Reynolds (1972, 1976a, 1976b) and Reynolds and Cook (1977) have shown that … 13. Corporate author: Example: … the 2013 State of Canada’s Forest report (CFS 2013) ... 14. Corporate author as subject of a sentence: Example: The Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources (2006) released a revised version of the provincial forest management planning manual. 15. Author(s) of a chapter within a book edited by another or a symposium article: Examples: … described by Prévost and Laing (1986) … 16. References in another work, original not read: Cite original author and date in text. In Literature Cited, include author who cited the work. For an example see the Literature Cited examples. 17. Neither the author nor the corporate author is known. Example: … as it was described earlier (Anon 1887). NOTE: Use Anon in the in-text citation, but use Anonymous in the Literature Cited page. 18. Direct quotations fewer than four lines are included within the sentence in the text: As this manual states: “Quotations of fewer than four lines or any quotation used as part of a sentence should be treated as part of the paragraph in which they occur, and are simply set off from the rest of the text by the quotation marks” (Smith 2008). The citation should be placed outside the quotation marks, but before a period indicating the end of the sentence. 19. Direct quotations of more than four lines, referred to as block quotations, are set off through single spacing and indenting 1.27 cm from both the left and right margins. No quotation marks are used. �39 NOTE: For a block quotation, the citation is placed outside the closing punctuation. Example: Forestry has generally developed only after a period of exploitation that has created actual or potential future timber shortages. The earliest stages of forestry usually involve the institution of regulations designed to meet certain objectives. Characteristically, these regulations are based on administrative, short-term economic or strategic dictates and reflect little or no knowledge of the ecological nature and variability of the forest. As a consequence, such early attempts at forestry rarely succeed in solving the problems that were their genesis. (Kimmins 1987) 20. Online sources follow the same author-text format. Example: Vaughan (2013) in his Environment Blog, notes that in the past 10 years more than 130,000 hectares of forest have been lost. FOOTNOTES IN THE TEXT • Footnotes are not used for literature citations. • Use footnotes sparingly. Footnotes may be used for explanatory material that is not of sufficient length or importance to include in the text proper or as an appendix. However, in many cases, the explanatory material can be placed in parentheses in the text rather than in a footnote. • When a footnote is required, it should be designated with a superscript Arabic numeral without parentheses. 1 • The footnote itself occurs at the bottom of the page that contains the material to be footnoted. • The footnote is single-spaced and its last line of text should conform to the bottom margin width. • A double space is to be left between different footnotes on the same page. 2 1 2 Such numerals should be placed immediately after the word or statement that is being explained. WORD TIP: Word automatically generates and formats footnotes. Use References, Insert Footnotes. �40 LITERATURE CITED PAGE EXAMPLE ____________________________________________________________________ LITERATURE CITED Assmann, E. 1970. The Principles of Forest Yield Study. Pergamon Press, New York. 371 pp. Gustafson, E.J., S.M. Lietz and J.L. Wright. 2003. Predicting the spatial distribution of aspen growth potential in the Upper Great Lakes Region. Forest Science 49(4):499–508 (online). Larsen, D.R. and J.A. Kershaw Jr. 1996. Influence of canopy structure assumptions on predictions from Beer’s Law: A comparison of deterministic and stochastic simulations. Agric. Meteorol. 81:61–77. Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources. 2002. Status Summary of Ontario's Forest Management Guides (review dates and consolidation details for new guide series). http://ontariosforests.mnr.gov.on.ca/. Dec. 14, 2003. Smith, F.D. 1995a. Management oriented yield tables for loblolly pine in the Georgia Piedmont region. USDA Gen. Tech. Bull. NC-161. 63 pp. Smith, F.D. 1995b. Compatible systems for estimation of tree and stand volumes. For. Chron. 70(3):15–16 (online). Smith, P., G. Scott and G. Merkel. 1995. Aboriginal Forest Land Management Guidelines: A Community Approach. National Aboriginal Forestry Association, Ottawa, ON. Wagner, R.G., G.H. Mohammed and T.L. Noland. 1999. Critical period of interspecific competition for northern conifers associated with herbaceous vegetation. Can. J. For. Res. 29(7):890–897 (online). Wang, J.R. and J.P. Kimmins. 2002. Height growth and competitive relationship between paper birch and Douglas-fir in coast and interior of British Columbia. For. Ecol. Manage. 165:285–293. Xu, M. 1997. Growth efficiency of individual loblolly pine (Pinus taeda L.) as affected by crown morphology, stand characteristics and microenvironment. PhD. thesis, University of Georgia, Athens. 286 pp. �41 Guidelines for a Literature Cited Page • The Literature Cited section begins on a separate page located at the end of the text of the report or essay (before any appendices). • The Literature Cited section contains only the sources you have cited within the text of your essay or report. It is not a bibliography, so omit any works you might have researched, but did not refer to in your submission. • The purpose of a Literature Cited entry is to give readers the information they need to identify and retrieve the sources you have used to prepare your document. The credibility and accuracy of your sources are therefore vital to the overall integrity of your essay or report. • Citations are listed in alphabetical order and are not numbered. • The first line begins at the left margin; subsequent lines of the entry are indented one tab. • Brackets, ( ), are used to enclose English WORD TIP: Use the Word ruler to format a hanging indent. translations of non-English works when translations are known. • All non-English words must be completed with accents, umlauts, etc., as in the original source. • The format for the information required in an entry is summarized below: GENERAL FORMAT FOR JOURNAL ARTICLES: Author(s). Year. Article title. Journal title volume number (issue number):inclusive page numbers. Note that for journal article titles, only the first word (and other proper nouns) is capitalized. The name of the journal is capitalized. GENERAL FORMAT FOR BOOKS: Author(s) [or editor(s)]. Year. Title. Publisher, place of publication. Number of pages. Note that for titles of books, all words are capitalized except for articles (a, an, and the) and prepositions with fewer than five letters.) �42 GENERAL FORMAT FOR CHAPTERS IN BOOKS: Author(s) of the part. Year. Title inclusive pages.in Author(s) [ed(s)]. Title of the book. Publisher, place of publication. Number of pages. GENERAL FORMAT FOR INTERNET CITATIONS: As above, with the addition of the URL or website address and date viewed. For popular sources (as opposed to academic peer-reviewed sources), indicate the type of internet citation, e.g., Web Log Post (for blog), Video File (for youtube, etc.), Facebook Post and the day, month and year of the post. For journal articles retrieved from the internet, omit URL and instead put “online” in brackets following inclusive page numbers. • The first line begins along the left margin, with subsequent lines of an entry indented 1.27 cm (a “hanging indent”). • Entries are always listed alphabetically by the authors’ last names—they are never numbered. • Each entry must be complete and contain information about the author and year the work was published, as well as the title and publication details needed for the retrieval of the specific text. Include the following items in any Literature Cited entry: o Author’s last name, separated with a comma from the author’s initials, followed by a period and one space (i.e., for single author, Smith, P. and for multiple authors, Smith, P., G. Scott and G. Merkel.). o Year of publication, followed by a period and one space (i.e., 2003. ). o For books: Complete title of the work, with significant words capitalized, not italicized or underlined, followed by a period and one space (i.e., Forest Ecology). o For other printed matter, including journal articles: Complete title of the work, with only the initial word and proper nouns capitalized, not italicized �43 or underlined, followed by a period and one space (i.e., Tradable land-use rights for cumulative environmental effects management. ). o Publication information: name of publisher, name of journal or longer work (if source is a chapter), or title of website page; place of publication, journal volume and number; or internet address (i.e., for book, MacMillan Publishing Co., New York, and for journal, Canadian Public Policy 28(4):581–593.). o Number of pages in the book, page references for article in a longer work, or date of retrieval for an internet source. • Personal communications are not listed in a Literature Cited section. Instead, the reference is included in the text of the report or essay. As with other citations, include the name of the author, the date the communication occurred and information on the nature of the source; e.g., lecture notes, in literature, an email, or as a personal (oral) communication. You might choose to introduce the name of the source in the sentence itself. Examples: Parker (in lecture NRMT 1010, Nov. 28, 2013) stated … Barnes (pers. comm., May 7, 2013) indicated that … You can further highlight an individual’s personal communications contributions in the Acknowledgements section. Examples of Literature Cited entries There is such a variety of source material that it is best you learn and understand the purpose of a literature citation rather than try to memorize all the different examples. Scan journals for other possible examples. If you are in doubt about what information to �44 include, keep in mind that it is better to include more rather than less information. Put yourself in your reader’s shoes—what information do they need to easily find the source? As well, while proofreading, check to make sure that names and dates of your in-text citations match what is in the literature cited. 1. Single author, article: Smith, P. 1998. Aboriginal and treaty rights and Aboriginal participation: Essential elements of sustainable forest management. Forestry Chronicle 74(3):327–333. Pulkki, R. 1984. A spatial database-heuristic programming system for aiding decisionmaking in long-distance transport of wood. Seloste: Sijaintitietokanta – heuristinen ohjelmointijärjestelmä puutavaran kaukikuljetuksen päät`ksenteossa. Acta For. Fenn. 188:1–89. 2. Single author, book: Manion, P.D. 1982. Tree Disease Concepts. Prentice-Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey. 399 pp. NOTE: Initial word, significant words and proper nouns are capitalized in book titles, but only initial words and proper nouns are capitalized in other publications. 3. Two or more publications by the same author (notice sequence by year, with earliest publication date first): Farmer, R.E. Jr. 1963. Effect of light intensity on growth of Populus tremuloides cuttings under two temperature regimes. Ecology 44(2):409–411. Farmer, R.E. Jr. 1964. Sex ratio and sex-related characteristics in eastern cottonwood. Silvae Genet. 13:116–118. 4. Two or more works by an author published in the same year (small letters distinguish each publication; placed in the order cited in the text): Reynolds, J.W. 1976a. The distribution and ecology of the earthworms of Nova Scotia. Megadrilogica 2:1–7. Reynolds, J.W. 1976b. Catalogue et clef d’identification des lombricides du Québec. Nat. Can. 103:21–27. Reynolds, J.W. 1976c. Die Biogreografie van Niirde-Amerikaanse Erdwurms (Oligochaeta) Noorde van Meksiko. II. Indikator 8:6–20. 5. Publication by one author and with co-authors (repeat name): Reynolds, J.W. 1978. The whole earthworm catalogue. Horticulture 56:41–48. �45 Reynolds, J.W. and A.J. Reinecke. 1976. A preliminary survey of the earthworms of the Kruger National Park, South Africa. Wet. Bydraes, P.U. vir C.H.O. (B), No. 89. 19 pp. 6. Multiple authors: Grant, G.G., Y.H. Prévost, K.N. Slessor, G.G.S. King and R.J. West. 1987. Identification of the sex pheromone of the spruce coneworm, Dioryctria reniculelloides (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae). Environ. Entomol. 16:905–909. Schnekenburger, F., K.M. Brown and J.E. Barker. 1985. Effects of nitrogen fertilization and low thinning on snow damage in jack pine. For. Sci. 31:52–56. Yang, K.C. and G. Hazenberg. 1987. Geographical variation in wood properties of Larix larcina juvenile wood in northern Ontario. Can. J. For. Res. 17:648–653. 7. Publication in press: Dickinson, T.A., P. Knowles and W.H. Parker. 1988. Data set congruence in northern Ontario tamarack (Larix laricina, Pinaceae) Syst. Bot. (in press). 8. Publication by an institute: Reynolds. J.W. 1977. The earthworms (Lumbricidae and Sparganophilidae) of Ontario. Life Sci. Misc. Publ., Roy. Ont. Mus., Toronto. x + 141 pp. NOTE: x = 10 pages of separately paged prefaces. Reynolds, J.W. and D.G. Cook. 1977. Nomenclatura oligochaetologica, a catalogue of names, descriptions and type specimens of the Oligochaeta. University of New Brunswick, Fredericton. x + 217 pp. 9. Thesis manuscript: Prévost, Y.H. 1986. The relationship between the development of cones of black spruce, Picea mariana (Mill.) B.S.P. and their insect fauna. Ph.D. dissertation, Environmental Biology, Univ. of Guelph, ON. 96 pp. Dunai, A. 1998. Factors predisposing urban trees to insect defoliations in Richmond Hill Ontario. B.Sc.F. thesis, Faculty of Forestry, Lakehead University, Thunder Bay, ON. 68 pp. 10. Article in a published symposium, conference proceedings or a chapter in a book with an editor(s): Turner, N. 2001. “Keeping it living”: Applications and relevance of traditional plant management in British Columbia to sustainable harvesting of non-timber forest products pp. 66-77 in Davidson-Hunt, I., L.C. Duchesne and J.C. Zasada (eds.) Forest Communities in the Third Millennium: Linking Research, Business, and Policy toward a Sustainable Nontimber Forest Product Sector; Proceedings of the meeting held in Kenora, Ontario, Canada, October 1-4, 1999. Gen. Tech. Rep. NC-217. U.S. Dept. of Agric., For. Serv., N. Central Res. Stn., St. Paul, MN. 151 pp. NOTE: There is no period after page numbers or before in. �46 Hayter, R. and J. Holmes. 2001. The Canadian forest industry: The impacts of globalization and technological change pp. 127-156 in Howlett, M. (ed.) Canadian Forest Policy: Adapting to Change. University of Toronto Press, Toronto, ON. 446 pp. 11. Bulletin: Reynolds, J.W. 1972. The activity and distribution of earthworms in tulip poplar stands in the Great Smoky Mountains National Park, Sevier County, Tennessee. Bull. Tall Timbers Res. Stn., No. 11, pp. 41–54. NOTE: If the article had been a bulletin all by itself: No. 11, 54 pp. 12. Book review: Reynolds, J.W. 1973. Review of Gates, G.E. 1972. Burmese earthworms: An introduction to the systematics and biology of Megadrile oligochaetes with special references to southeast Asia. Syst. Zool. 22:197–199. 13. Unpublished duplicated material: Van Slyke, A.L. 1967. Crown measures as indicators of tree growth in red spruce. Paper read at Mensuration Sessions, Joint CIF-SAF Annual Meeting. October 19, 1967, Ottawa. 18 pp. (mimeographed). 14. Unpublished manuscript: Carmean, W.H. and D.J. Lenthall. 1988. Height growth and site index curves for jack pine in north central Ontario. Unpublished manuscript. 15. Abstract: Laing, J.E. and Y.H. Prévost. 1986. Seed and cone insects of black spruce. p. 23 in Ontario Renewable Resources Seminar Abstracts Jan. 30–31, 1986 22 pp. (abstract). Parker, W.H. 1984. Flavanoid variation in Yukon populations of Abies lasiocarpa. Am. J. Bot. 71, part 2:182–183 (abstract). 16. Publications in microfilm: Reynolds, J.W. 1973. The Lumbricidae (Ammelida: Oligochaeta) of Tennessee. Ph.D. dissertation, University of Tennessee, Knoxville. xii + 302 pp. (microfilm). NOTE: This entry differs slightly from example 13 because the original or a Xeroxed typed copy of the original document was not consulted. 17. Corporate publications, author(s) known: [OMNR] Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources. 2001. Forest Management Guide for Natural Disturbance Pattern Emulation. Version 3.1. Ont. Min. Nat. Res., Queen’s Printer for Ontario, Toronto. 40 pp. NOTE: This would be cited in text as OMNR (2001) or (OMNR 2001). 18. Corporate publications, corporation unknown, such as unauthored, independent publications such as maps: �47 Anonymous. 1957. Honey and beeswax. Stat. Rept. Serv. No. 388. 10 pp. NOTE: Use n.d. (no date) if date cannot be determined. 19. Atlas: Bartholomew, J. (ed.). 1957. The Times atlas of the world: Mid-century edition. Vol 5. The American Times Publ. Co., Ltd., London. 57 pp. 120 plates. NOTE: Enter under person or corporate body responsible, i.e., cartographer, editor, publisher, government bureau, society, or institution. If responsibility cannot be determined, enter under title. 20. Map: Leppard, H. M. (ed.). 1961. Goode base map series. No. 202. North America. Dept. Geography, Univ. Chicago. NOTE: Enter in the sequence of person(s) or corporate body stated in the title, cartographer, engraver, publisher, and copyright claimant. If responsibility cannot be determined, enter under title. 21. Foreign language publication: in original language but with English abstract and/or summary: Reynolds, J.W. 1976. Un aperçu des vers de terre dans les forêts nord-americaines, leurs activités et leurs répartitions. Megadrilogica 2:1–11. (In French; English, French, German and Spanish summaries). 22. Foreign language publication; no translation, summary or other-wise, or translator given: Reynolds, J.W. 1976. Die Biogeografie van Noorde-Amerikaanse Erdwurms (Oligochaeta) Noorde van Meksiko. II. Indikator 8:6–20 (in Afrikaans). 23. Foreign language publication; translation when English title not given: Zuraiq, Q. 1948. Ma na an-Nakba [The meaning of disaster]. Dar al-Ilm lil-Malayin, Beirut. 88 pp. (in Arabic). 24. Foreign language publication; English title given in original: Frederiks, G.N. 1926. Table for determination of the genera of the family Spiriferidae King. Izv. Akad. Naul, USSR. 20:393–423 (in Russian). 25. Legislation or Acts of Parliament. Federal: Combines Investigation Act, R.S.C. 1970, c. C-23, s.2. NOTE: R.S.C. = Revised Statute of Canada. Provincial: Liquor Control Act, R.S.N.B. 1970, c. L-10, s. 13(1). NOTE: R.S.N.B. = Revised Statute of New Brunswick. 26. House of Commons Debates (Hansard): Angus, C. 2013. Statement on Economic Action Plan 2013 Act No. 2. Canada. Parliament. Edited Hansard 147(009):1335. 41st Parliament, 2nd session. �48 http://www.parl.gc.ca/HousePublications/Publication.aspx?Language=E&Mode=1 &Parl=41&Ses=2&DocId=6270979#TOC-TS-1335. Dec. 30, 2013. 27. Examples of the various types of Canadian Forest Service, Natural Resources Canada publications: NOTE: The names of government departments change over time; your citation should use the name of the department at the time of publication. i) Leaflet: Wile, B.C. n.d. Balsam fir. Can For. Serv. MFRC. 12 pp. ii) Unauthored, independent, map-like publications: Anonymous. n.d. Common pests of ornamental hardwoods in Maritime Provinces. Can. For. Serv. MFRC. iii) Information reports: Groot, A. 2001. User’s manual for “PC-Seed”. Can. For. Serv. Great Lakes For. Cent. Nat. Resour. Can. Inf. Rep. GLC-X-4. 18 pp. iv) Tree pest control leaflet: Humble, L.M. and A.J. Stewart. 1994. Gypsy moth. Can. For. Serv. Pacific For. Cent. Nat. Resour. Can. Forest Pest Leaflet 75, co-published by the BC Ministry of Forests. v) Internal report: Renault, T.R. 1968. An illustrated key to arboreal spiders (Araneae) in the firspruce forests of New Brunswick. Can. For. Ser. MFRC Int. Rept. M-39. 41 pp. vi) Local irregular publications: Anonymous. 1978. The budworm’s point of view. Pith to Periderm. Can. For. Serv. MFRC. 12:8–14. Magasi, L. 1978. Forest insect and disease survey highlights (summer 1978). The Green Chain, pp. 15–17. (Cab, For. Serv. MFRC). vii) Co-operative reports: Anonymous. 1978. Nashwaak Experimental Watershed Project, Annual Report 1976-77. Can For. Serv. MFRC. 23 pp. viii) Abbreviations for laboratories of Environment Canada, Canadian Forestry Service: [Envi. Can. Can. For. Serv.] (before 1985); Forestry Canada [For. Can.] (after 1985); and Natural Resources Canada, Canadian Forest Service, [Nat. Resour. Can. Can. For. Serv.] (after 1993). Before 1985 after 1985 after 1993 Newfoundland and Labrador Region NeFRC NeFC Nfld. Lab. Reg. �49 Maritimes Region Quebec Region Ontario Region Northwestern Region Pacific and Yukon Region MFRC LFRC GLFRC NoFRC PFRC MFC LFC CLFC NoFC PFC Marit. Reg. Que. Reg. Ont. Reg. NW Reg. Pac. Yuk. Reg. 28. Citing an author quoted in an article by another author: Duges, A. 1837. Nouvelles observations sur la zoologie et l’anatomie des Annelides abranches setigeres. Ann. Sci. Nat. 8:15–35. (Cited in Reynolds 1983b.) 29. Television broadcast: Reynolds, J. 1976. Interviewed by Peter Gzowski on “90 Minutes Live.” CBC Television, Dec. 22, 1976. 30. Radio broadcast: Prévost, Y.H. and Z Valdmanis. 2001. Interview by Gerald Graham on the “Voyage North Show.” CBQ Radio, Thunder Bay, Dec. 3, 2001. 31. Lecture: See Personal Communication on page 43 of this manual. 32. Film or filmstrip: Fueter, H. 1968. Waste: The penalty of affluence. Condor Film, on behalf of World Wildlife Fund. Colour, 18 minutes. Discovery Channel. n.d. Extreme Loggers, Ice Logging, Episode 3, Part 1/3. Video File. Posted on youtube.com by gustavopcastro, Oct. 16, 2013. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JHrOIx6CgBo. Dec. 30, 2013. 33. Newspaper article: Prévost, Y.H. 2001. Urban forester benefits outweigh salary. The Chronicle Journal, Thunder Bay, ON. Dec. 12, 2001, p. A6. Canadian Press. 2003. Ban on spring bear hunt here to stay. Toronto Star, Toronto, ON. Dec. 17, 2003. www.torontostar.com. Dec. 17, 2003. 34. Record or tape: Ramsey, F. Jr. 1958. John Henry from Jazz, vol.1. Folkway Records, Toronto. FJ 2801. Side 1, cut 4. 35. Internet source: Author. Year. Title. Publisher. URL. Date viewed. NOTE: Internet sources should be in the same format as the citations above, with the addition of the website address (URL) and date viewed. For online journals, omit the URL, date viewed and simply note “(online)” following the volume, issue, page number information. If there is no specific author cited for the source, use the corporate author format, citing the organization hosting the website. Dates are often unclear on websites; if the date is not clear at the top of the page, use the “last �50 updated” date usually listed at the bottom of websites or n.d. (no date). Canadian Forest Service. 2003. Guide to Tree Diseases of Ontario. Can. For. Serv. Great Lakes For. Cent. Nat. Resour. Can. http://www.glfc.cfs.nrcan.gc.ca/treedisease/index_e.html. Dec. 17, 2003. Le Guerrier, C., D.J. Marceau, A. Bouchard and J. Brisson. 2003. A modelling approach to assess the long-term impact of beech bark disease in northern hardwood forest. Can. J. of For. Res. 33(12):2416–2425 (online). i) Blog Post: Last name, initial. Year. Title of post. Web Log Post, Month, day, year. Url. Date viewed. Pacheco, P., K. Obidzinski and G. Schoneveld. 2013. Biofuels and forests: Revisiting the debate. Web Log Post. CIFOR Forests News, Oct. 17, 2013. http://blog.cifor.org/19515/biofuels-and-forests-revisiting-thedebate#.UrhDa_RDsXs. Dec. 23, 2013. ii) You Tube Video: Last name, initial. Year. Title of video. Video File, Month, day, year. Url. Date viewed. Pitt, D. 2010. Harvesting practices in the boreal forest. Video File, Nov. 24, 2010. Ottawa: Natural Resources Canada. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2OA7FB2vrM. Dec. 23, 2013. iii) Facebook Post: Username. Year. Title of post. Facebook Post, Month, day, year. Url. Date viewed. Rachel Chalat. 2013. Learn about the work of IFRI researchers and affiliated groups. Facebook Post, Dec. 16, 2013. https://www.facebook.com/groups/IFRIresearch/. Dec. 23, 2013. 36. Student record of unpublished data gathered at a summer job: Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources, 2002. Unpublished data. 37. Legal cases: Case name, neutral citation as given by court. Mikisew Cree First Nation v. Canada (Minister of Canadian Heritage), 2005 SCC 69. APPENDICES • An appendix contains material that is not integral to the report (or thesis), such as tabular or graphical material, a very long quotation, original documents and raw material. You might also include supplementary information that is too long to include in the text of the report. Indicate the inclusion of an appendix in text, e.g., “A table of raw data is presented in Appendix II.” �51 • The appendix section is preceded by a divider page which has the word APPENDIX (if you only have one appendix) or APPENDICES (if you have more than one), centered 10.0 cm from the top of the new page. The divider page itself is counted, but not numbered (similar to a title or cover page). • If more than one type of material is to be placed in the section, each type should be given a new section designation and its own title. • Each appendix should begin on a new page, with the appendix number (usually upper case Roman numerals—e.g., I, II,—or capital letters—e.g., A, B) centred 4.0 cm from the top of the page. • The appendix designation should be centred on the first line of text, followed by a double space, then the title in uppercase, also centred on a second line of text. • Leave 1.5 cm between the appendix title and the beginning of the appendix. You might find this process time-consuming, but the appearance is much improved over hand-lettered titles. �52 STYLE EXPECTATIONS The Faculty of Natural Resources Management requires that students write for different purposes and occasions. By the end of your program, you will be skilled in journal, essay and technical report writing. You will have submitted both informal and formal works, you will have written alone and with others, and you will have presented your findings verbally. The different assignments will have different format and style expectations and although standards of grammar, spelling and punctuation are consistent, wording and organization of the material conform to either essay or technical report writing styles. GENERAL GUIDELINES FOR REPORTS Reports (for example, lab, technical, recommendation) require that the writing style follow the conventions of scientific writing: they are objective and specific in content. To achieve these requirements, reports generally adhere to the following guidelines: • When reporting your own findings, use the past tense, but when discussing the findings of others, write in the present tense. • The Abstract, Materials and Methods and Results sections are written in the past tense; the Introduction and Discussion are in the present tense. • General truths are also stated in the present tense, but specific conclusions that are not yet considered general truths are written in the past tense. • Until the Discussion/Conclusion, the writing is descriptive; a writer’s opinion or conjecture does not occur until the objective evaluation of the findings. �53 • Generally, the Methods section is written in the passive voice so that the writer can avoid using I or we. • It is preferable to use the word data as a plural; you might find it easier to remember this if you substitute the word findings for data. • Avoid using conversational, informal language, contractions (i.e., use “it is” rather than “it’s”) or colloquialisms (slang) in formal writing unless the expression is a direct quotation from another author. • Finally, remember that your submissions are public documents: edit out what you do not think others would appreciate/understand, write for your audience, not yourself, and include only information that pertains to the subject of the report. GENERAL GUIDELINES FOR ESSAYS Although you have had experience in writing essays, many of you will find the level of analysis expected at university exceeds your experience. Therefore, it is important that you are able to not only describe your subject or source, but also analyze or interpret the material you are presenting. • A scientific essay often starts with an opinion/thesis that is then proven or explained by looking at evidence. • Most often, the evidence is taken from the work of others. Your ability to summarize the work of others and apply it to your central thesis is crucial to the readability and academic worth of any writing you submit. • An essay that is without peer-reviewed, academic, referenced sources is not an academic piece of writing. The following guidelines might be useful reminders: �54 • Think about and clearly articulate your thesis. What is the central idea of your essay? Avoid choosing a topic that is too large or too small for the length of the work. • Make sure that you understand the requirements of the essay: due date, format, structure and acceptable topics. • Before beginning to write, use a point form outline to organize your material in a hierarchical fashion: the thesis/central idea is supported by main points which are explained by supporting details. • Keep references organized: use file cards or notes with complete citations of your sources clearly marked, and then organize the material by point, topic, etc. • Spend time as soon as you get the assignment to make a work plan and jot down notes; the more you do early on, the less you will have to do at 4:00 in the morning of the due date. • Get an outside reader (two are better!) to proofread your work; others will pick up errors you miss. Writing Concisely In all technical writing, conciseness is a virtue. However, if you lack confidence in your researching or writing ability, you might try to compensate by over explaining or repeating your points. This type of redundancy makes for tedious reading. As well, a disadvantage of composing on a computer is that your writing tends to become unnecessarily long-winded. Watch out for “filler” constructions, language that does not contribute to understanding the topic (e.g., in other words, at this point in time, basically, �55 due to the fact that). The following list, adopted from editing guidelines in The Journal of Wildlife Management, gives sensible alternatives for rambling expressions: WORDY CONSTRUCTIONS SUGGESTED SUBSTITUTES the purpose of this study was to test the hypothesis in this study we assessed we demonstrated that there was a direct Were responsible for played the role of on the basis of evidence available to date in order to provide a basis for comparing in order to as a result of for the following reasons the reason is because; due to the fact that during the course of this experiment during the process of during periods when the nature of a large (or small or limited) number of conspicuous numbers of a substantial quantity of a majority a single seedlings, irrespective of species all of the species various lines of evidence they do not themselves possess were still present the analysis presented in this paper indicating the presence of despite the presence of checked for the presence of in the absence of a series of observations may be the mechanism responsible for it is reasonable to assume that in a single period of a few hours occur in areas of North America in the vicinity the present-day population this particular point in time their subsequent fate whether or not summer (winter, etc.) months I (or we) hypothesized we assessed we demonstrated direct caused were consequently to compare to through, by because, since, as because during the experiment during when (omit completely) many (or few) many much most one all seedlings all species evidence they lack persisted, survived our analysis indicating despite checked for without observations may have caused with in a few hours occur in North America nearby the population now their fate whether summer (winter) �56 are not uncommon showed a tendency to devastated with drought-induced desiccation may be tended to killed by drought If you are prone to terseness (being too concise), have someone else read your work and comment on the thoroughness of your explanations. ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS Abbreviations and acronyms can improve the readability of a work, but overuse can frustrate the reader. • Avoid using abbreviations and acronyms unnecessarily or if you are using the term only once. • Avoid using similar terms in close proximity. • No sentence should begin with abbreviations, symbols, acronyms or numerals; neither should they be used in headings. • When you use an abbreviated form throughout a work, on first use give the full term, followed by the abbreviation in parentheses. Then use the abbreviation throughout the text. • If you are using units of measurement that are preceded by a number, you may use the abbreviated form at first usage. Note that there is no period following abbreviated metric units of measurement. • Dimensional units not preceded by a number must be written in full; e.g., “... measured in litres per second.” �57 • Acronyms are words formed by the combination of initial letters or syllables in a series of words: for example, Writing Across the Curriculum (WAC), and the Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources (OMNR). • Notice that most acronyms leave out the periods between letters. • On first use of an acronym, the full name should be given at with the acronym following in parentheses. Subsequently, the acronym can be used throughout the text. INTERNATIONAL SYSTEM OF UNITS (SI) The Système Internationale d’Unités (SI) is the form of the metric system advocated by the Canadian Standards Association (CSA). SI is the official system of measurement in Canada, and all other metric units are considered by the CSA to be obsolete. • Seven fundamental units exist in SI: metre (m), kilogram (kg), second (s), ampere (A), Kelvin (K), candela (cd) and mole (mol). All other units are derived from these. It is important to use the units, the spelling of their names, and their symbols exactly as given. • Note that the Canadian spelling is metre, and although your spell checker will want to change it to meter, the -re ending is preferred. • Note that “metric” and “decimal” are not synonymous. “Decimal” relates to tenth or tens whereas “metric” refers to the measurement system based on the metre. Thus, half a litre is metric but not decimal; 0.5 quart is decimal but not metric; 0.5 L is decimal and metric. �58 Form and Format for SI Units a) When the names of SI units are written out in full, the initial letter of the name (with the exception of Celsius) is not capitalized, except at the beginning of a sentence. b) A derived unit formed by division has “per” between the units; e.g., kilometre per hour, not kilometre/hour. c) A symbol represents a unit name and is the same in all languages. d) The symbols do not change in the plural; e.g., 10 kilometres = 10 km e) The symbols are never followed by a period except at the end of a sentence. f) The symbol of a derived unit formed by division may be shown by using an oblique line (/) between the symbols in the numerator and those in the denominator (50 kg/m2) or by the use of symbols with negative exponents (50 kg.m-2); e.g., km/h, not kmph or k.p.h. g) A space must be left between the numerals and the first letter of the symbol; e.g., 320 lm, not 320lm for 320 lumens. h) Do not use symbols to begin a sentence. As with numbers, write out the full name. i) o with oC but not with K; for example, 37oC = 310 k (approx.), not 37oC = 310oK. Form and Format for Numerals a) In text, if a numerical value is less than one, a zero should precede the decimal point. In tables, when several or all values in a column or columns are less than one, only the first (topmost) value in the column needs to have a zero preceding the decimal point. b) Although some countries use a comma as a decimal marker, the practice in Britain and North America is to use the period as a decimal marker. �59 c) To avoid confusion, use spaces instead of commas to divide a long row of digits into easily readable blocks of three, in both directions, from the decimal point: 3 244 453.246 07. d) A dot should not be used as the multiplication symbol in conjunction with numerals, although the dot is permitted with symbols. Use of Prefixes with SI Units a) Prefix symbols are printed in upright type without spacing between the prefix symbol and the unit symbol. b) Only one prefix symbol is applied at one time to a given unit; e.g., nanometre (nm), not millimicrometre (mum). c) In the case of the kilogram, the root name to which the prefix is applied is “gram” as only one prefix should be used; e.g., milligram (mg), not microkilogram (mkg). d) The prefix symbol is considered to be combined with the unit symbol that it immediately precedes, forming a new symbol. The new symbol can then be converted to a positive or negative power and can be combined with other symbols to form a compound symbol; e.g., 1 mm2/s = 1 (mm)2/s = (10-3m)2/s = 10-6 m2 s-1. e) It is recommended that only one prefix be used in forming decimal multiples or submultiples of a derived SI unit. This prefix should be attached to the unit in the numerator. An exception to this occurs when the base unit, kilogram, appears in the denominator; e.g., m /m, not /km but J/kg (the exception). f) The choice of the appropriate multiple of an SI unit is governed by convenience, the multiple chosen for a particular application being the one that will lead to numerical values within a practical range. The use of prefixes representing 10 raised to a power �60 that is a multiple of 3 is recommended. The multiple can usually be chosen so that the numerical values will be between 0.1 and 1 000; e.g., 3.94 mm for 0.003 94 m. Prefixes Forming Decimal Multiples and Sub-multiples of SI Units Multiplying Factor 1 000 000 000 000 000 000 = 1018 1 000 000 000 000 000 = 1015 1 000 000 000 000 = 1012 1 000 000 000 = 109 1 000 000 = 106 1 000 = 103 100 = 102 10 = 10 0.1 = 10-1 0.01 = 10-2 0.001 = 10-3 0.000 001 = 10-6 0.000 000 001 = 10-9 0.000 000 000 001 = 10-12 0.000 000 000 000 001 = 10-15 0.000 000 000 000 000 001 = 10-18 Prefix Exa Peta Tera Giga Mega kilo hecto deca deci centi milli micro nano pico femto atto Symbol E P T G M k h da d c m μ n p f a Metric Conversion Table If you know multiply by to get miles chains yards feet inches 1.609 34 20.116 8 0.914 4 0.304 8 2.54 km m m m cm acres 1 mil-acre square feet square inches square miles square yards 0.040 5 4.046 9 0.092 9 6.451 6 2.59 0.836 1 ha m2 m2 cm2 km2 m2 cords cubic feet cubic yards 3.624 6 0.028 3 0.764 6 m3 m3 m3 �61 cunits gallons 2.831 7 4.546 1 m3 L ounces pounds tons 28.349 5 0.453 6 0.907 2 g kg t cords per acre cubic feet per acre pounds per cubic foot square feet per acre tons per acre 8.956 5 0.07 16.018 5 0.229 6 0.241 7 m3/ha m3/ha kg/m3 m2/ha t/ha HYPHENATION Hyphens are used as structural grammatical elements and also as a publishing convention. As a structural element, the hyphen (or short dash) is used as follows: • between words in any phrase that functions as a single adjective before a noun; for example, “... a 30-m-long, 10,000-kg prototype ...”; • after the first part of a compound when the second part is to be inferred from its occurrence in a following compound in the same grammatical unit; for example, “We never used anything brighter than a 40- or 60-watt light bulb”; and • between the parts of spelled-out fractions and numbers from twenty-one to ninetynine, as in “one-third of the seedlings”. As a publishing convention, the hyphen is used to: • represent a missing part of a word; for example, “She could never spell beyond Pseudo- in Pseudotsuga menziesii”; • indicate a syllable break at the end of a line of text; • demonstrate a letter-by-letter spelling of a word, as in “The instructor spelled the word: m-e-t-r-e”; and �62 • separate a prefix from the rest of the word when the prefix might cause confusion; for example, “semi-integrated, non-Canadian”. DASHES The long dash (“em” dash) is used as a substitute for the colon, semicolon or comma, designed to give more emphasis in the sentence; for example, “ a number of formatting styles are unique to the Faculty of Natural Resources Management—in-text citations, scientific nomenclature and headings. The “en” dash is used to indicate a time period between two inclusive dates, as in “from November 12–16, 1999” or to indicate a range between two values: “Readings were from 0–500 Kohms.” NUMBERS • Write out all numbers that begin sentences. • Usually, numbers less than ten are written out in full regardless of their position in the sentence, unless they are part of an expression of measurement, as in decimals and SI units. • Spelled-out and non-spelled-out numbers are not mixed in the same phrase except to avoid confusion, as in “five 10-kg bags and fifteen 20-kg bags. • Approximate numbers should be expressed in words. • Large numbers, such as those in the millions, should be written out, but the number of millions may be given in numerals (e.g., 20 million). • Dollar amounts in different currencies should be designated if the origin of the currency is unclear and may change the meaning of the amount used; for example �63 CAD$20 for Canadian dollars; USD$20 for United States currency, AUD$20 for Australian dollars and EURO$20 for European Union. • When writing out percentages, there is no hard and fast rule, but do be consistent. You can write 60% or 60 per cent. (Two words, per cent, is preferred British and Canadian spelling; one word, percent, is preferred in the U.S. Again, be consistent in your choice.) NUMBERED AND BULLETED LISTS In consideration of the reader, a series of statements or points may be separated by numbers or bullets. • If the material is in a single paragraph, the numbers are to be enclosed in a single parenthesis without a period. Example: An introduction includes: 1) background material to introduce the topic, 2) a thesis statement, and 3) a statement of the organizational plan. • When the enumeration is by long statements or in paragraphs, then each paragraph is to bear a number, not in parentheses, followed by a period. A similar format is to be followed when a series of short items is set off from the text by a numbered list or a series of bullets. • Whatever the case, remember that point-form lists and numbered items are not satisfactory substitutes for proper English sentences. Numbered and bulleted lists are more appropriately used in how-to manuals, and are almost never used in essays. Even in reports they should be used sparingly. �64 SCIENTIFIC NOMENCLATURE • The first mention of a common name must be followed by the scientific name and authority of a species enclosed in round brackets. Example: choke cherry (Prunus virginiana L.) Where: 1. choke cherry is the common name; 2. Prunus virginiana is the scientific name, which is a Latin binomial consisting of the genus name (Prunus) followed by the specific epithet (virginiana); and\ 3. L. is the authority, i.e., the abbreviated name of the original author. Here L. is an abbreviation of Linnaeus. • After the scientific name and authority has been stated once, the common name may be used alone. This rule applies to all flora and fauna mentioned in a work, including genus names. If the first mention of a species is in a heading or a table caption, give the full scientific reference after the first mention of the common name in the text. • When the original authority has been corrected, the original authority is put in parentheses. Example: black spruce (Picea mariana (Mill.) BSP) • Common names are not capitalized unless proper nouns are involved; for example, black spruce (Picea mariana (Mill.) BSP), but Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) Karst.). �65 • The Latin words used in genus and species names are written in italics (or underlined if written in longhand). • The genus name is capitalized, but the species name is not. • Acceptable abbreviations can be found in an appropriate taxonomic text. • In some works, it is preferable to use scientific names only. Then, the authorities must be given at first mention, but need not be included thereafter. • Generic names occurring more than once in a single paragraph may be abbreviated at the second and subsequent mentions within the paragraph to the initial capital letter, in italics or underlined. Example: P. marinana and P. abies were … However, do not use abbreviations where confusion between different genera with the same initial letter could occur, as with Pinus and Picea used in the same paragraph. EQUATIONS, CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND FORMULAE • When an equation is very brief, well-known, and used as an addition within a sentence that is grammatically correct without it, you may place the equation in round brackets within the text. Example: Albert Einstein, Novel Laureate, and Mick Jones, guitarist and singer of The Clash, have at least one thing in common. The famous equation (E = mc2) is both the title of a song and one of the basic concepts of the General Theory of Relativity. �66 • Longer, more complex equations are to be typed on a separate line or lines, not run into the text. Note that the equation remains a part of the text for purposes of punctuation. • Where equations do not include fractions, use the standard Word program to write them out. Example: Y = b0 + b1V1 + b2V2 Equation (1) where Y is the dependant variable, such as tree height; b0, b1 and b2 are constants; and V1 and V2 are explanatory factors that contribute to the value of Y (e.g., age and diameter at breast height). • Where equations are more complex, it is best to use specific software, such as Microsoft Equation Editor. Example of use with text: _____________________________________________________________ Honer's equation was used to determine total stem volume: Equation (2) where V = the volume of a tree (m3), DBH = diameter at breast height (cm), H = total height of the tree (m), and b, c1 and c2 are species specific constants. _______________________________________________________________ Guidelines for Presenting Equations and Formulae • Short equations are centred. • Longer equations are begun flush at the left margin and continued (if necessary) on subsequent lines, indented two spaces. �67 • Leave sufficient white space above and below the equation to set it off from the rest of the text. • If equations or formulae are numbered for subsequent reference, enclose the numbers in parentheses on the right margin, separated enough from the end of the equation to avoid confusion. When referring to an equation, use the term “Equation” and the parenthetical number, e.g., “Equation (7).” USE OF "i.e." and "e.g." Although often viewed as interchangeable, the terms “i.e." and "e.g." have distinct meanings. Both are followed by a comma. • i.e. is an abbreviation of the Latin "id est". The abbreviation i.e. means "that is" or "in other words." Use i.e. when your example is the only one that applies in this case. Example: To compute the volume of the tree reported to be the largest in the world, i.e., the General Sherman Tree in Sequoia National Park, foresters used the practical equivalent of calculating the volume of an irregular cone. (Note: There are many large trees, but The General Sherman Tree is the one reported to be the largest in the world; thus, "i.e." indicates that The General Sherman Tree is the only example that applies in this case.) • “e.g.” is an abbreviation of the Latin exampli gratia meaning "for the sake of an example." Use e.g. to mean "including", indicating that you are not intending to list everything being discussed. Example: �68 Some towns on Lake Superior, e.g., Nipigon and Red Rock, are working to improve tourist trade. (Note: "e.g." indicates that Nipigon and Red Rock are only two examples of many northern towns trying to attract tourists.) �69 THE UNDERGRADUATE THESIS Completion of an undergraduate thesis is a requirement for graduation from both the Honours Bachelor of Science in Forestry and Honours of Environmental Management programs. The thesis is completed through two courses—NRMT 4010 and 4030. NRMT 4010 introduces students to the manner in which knowledge is advanced and communicated through research. Lectures and assignments cover topics such as the scientific method, hypothesis testing, data collection, data analysis, defining a research topic, and writing a literature review. Students must complete a major literature review for the course. NRMT 4030 involves completion of the thesis designed in NRMT 4010. A thesis presents the results of original research on a particular subject that has been approved by the student’s faculty advisor. The process of selection and approval of the thesis subject matter should commence well before the end of the winter term in third year. In many instances, material for the thesis is gathered in the summer between third and fourth years. If summer employers agree to supply data, students should ensure employers understand why and how the data will be used. Any person supplying data should be made aware that a thesis is a public document and the material will not be confidential. All data (or other information) should be available by October of the academic year in which the thesis is to be prepared. Tentative approval for a topic should be obtained before the end of third year. Students should secure approval of their topic and selection of advisors (major advisor and second reader) by the first Friday in October of the academic year when the thesis �70 is to be prepared. A title and complete plan for development, including sources, should be submitted by the third Friday in October (preferably sooner). The title and outline can then be fully discussed and, if acceptable, approved. For topics involving research with human subjects or animals, e.g., doing interviews with people, handling animals in the wild, students will have to prepare a proposal and seek approval of the Faculty Research Ethics Committee or the Animal Care Committee before commencing that part of the project. The student’s faculty advisor will set aside time when (s)he will be available for consultation about the thesis. Ultimately, students are responsible for informing advisors of the status of the work. A completed first draft, done to the advisor’s expectations, is to be submitted on an agreed date. A revision process continues upon the advice of the faculty advisor. Students are strongly encouraged to meet regularly with their advisor in order to understand his/her expectations for the thesis in terms of quality and quantity. Students will verbally present their research findings twice: first, in a faculty seminar usually held the last week of classes in the Fall term (NRMT4010) and then in the term in which the thesis is due (NRMT4030). The final draft, typed and bound, is to be submitted by the second Friday following the end of classes. As deadlines may vary from year to year, students should consult with their advisors as early as possible in the year. The Faculty of Natural Resources Management requires three (3) copies of the thesis that must be signed by the major advisor and second reader. These three copies (allcoated to the Thesis Advisor, the Faculty library and the University Library) must be submitted before a mark for NRMT 4030 can be awarded. Additional copies (i.e., for the �71 second reader, a community partner, or for the student) are the responsibility of the student. Printing, binding and distribution of thesis are also the student’s responsibility. Order of Thesis Sections 1) Cover page 2) Title page 3) Library Rights Statement 4) A Caution to the Reader 5) Major Advisor Comments 6) Abstract 7) Contents 8) Tables 9) Figures 10) Acknowledgements 11) Introduction 12) Literature Review 13) Methods and Materials 14) Results 15) Discussion 16) Conclusion 17) Literature Cited 18) Appendices Thesis Cover Every thesis will have a cover page. The required elements are: 1) the title, 2) Faculty of Natural Resources Management, Lakehead University, Thunder Bay Ontario and 3) the author's name. You may be creative and add some artwork. See example below. �72 Example of a Thesis Cover Page INTEGRATION OF NON-TIMBER FOREST PRODUCT AND TIMBER MANAGEMENT: THE NEED FOR ABORIGINAL KNOWLEDGE AND PARTICIPATION by Sarah Allen Source: Natural Resources Canada 2000. Source: Anonymous 2002. Source: Plants of the Southwest 2002. FACULTY OF NATURAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT LAKEHEAD UNIVERSITY THUNDER BAY, ONTARIO May 2011 �73 Thesis Title Page The following information must appear on an essay or report’s title page: • title, centred, in capital letters, in the upper half of the page; • author’s full name, centred, upper and lower case letters, just below title; • the following statement, with information modified to suit the submission, positioned at the middle point of the page, e.g., • An undergraduate thesis submitted in partial fulfillment • of the requirements for the degree of • Honours Bachelor of Environmental Management • or • An undergraduate thesis submitted in partial fulfillment • of the requirements for the degree of • Honours Bachelor of Science in Forestry • • the date of submission, centred, 8 cm from the bottom of the page. • Other information could include the course number, course title and instructor’s name. �74 Example of a Thesis Title Page A VALIDATION OF THE STRATEGIC FOREST MANAGEMENT MODEL by Taylor R. Chen An Undergraduate Thesis Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Honours Bachelor of Science in Forestry (or Degree of Honours Bachelor of Environmental Management) Faculty of Natural Resources Management Lakehead University May 2012 _____________________________ Major Advisor ___________________________ Second Reader �75 Library Rights and Caution to the Reader A “Library Rights Statement” is required for all theses. It indicates the thesis is available for study, but that restrictions regarding copying of the material apply. Example of a Library Rights Statement ____________________________________________________________________ ii LIBRARY RIGHTS STATEMENT In presenting this thesis in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the HBScF (or HBEM) degree at Lakehead University in Thunder Bay, I agree that the University will make it freely available for inspection. This thesis is made available by my authority solely for the purpose of private study and research and may not be copied or reproduced in whole or in part (except as permitted by the Copyright Laws) without my written authority. Signature: _________________________________ Date: _____________________________________ �76 A Caution to the Reader The thesis advisor may also request that the student include “A Caution to the Reader,” which absolves the university and thesis advisors or readers of any responsibility for the opinions expressed by the writer. Example of a Caution to the Reader ______________________________________________________________________ iii A CAUTION TO THE READER This HBScF (or HBEM) thesis has been through a semi-formal process of review and comment by at least two faculty members. It is made available for loan by the Faculty of Natural Resources Management for the purpose of advancing the practice of professional and scientific forestry. The reader should be aware that opinions and conclusions expressed in this document are those of the student and do not necessarily reflect the opinions of the thesis supervisor, the faculty or Lakehead University. ______________________________________________________________________ Abstract Follow the instructions for the writing of abstracts for the undergraduate report; however, make sure your thesis abstract does not exceed one page in length. The distance from the top of the first line of the title to the bottom of the last line or the text must not exceed 16.5 cm. Submit one unbound copy of your thesis abstract with your presentation copies for publication in Forestry Abstracts. �77 Contents The Title Page, Major Advisor’s Comments, Library Rights Statement, Reader Caution and Contents do not appear within the table of contents. Figures and Tables See section in Undergraduate Essay for more information. Acknowledgements In this section the authors recognizes those who have helped them substantially with the completion of the thesis through provision of data, advice and/or constructive feedback. As well, any source of funding is stated. Introduction of the Thesis The thesis introduction orients the reader to the study topic. It starts by some general statements that become progressively more specific. The introduction should be interesting. If you bore the reader here, then you are unlikely to revive their interest in the literature review or in the materials and methods section. For the first paragraph or two, tradition permits prose that is less dry than the scientific norm. In the introduction the author introduces the importance of the research by stating the problem that needs studying. Establish the nature and scope of the problem as directly as possible. In many cases, the problem can be stated simply, for example, “A fundamental problem of forest growth and yield modeling is….” If you wish to open by setting the context for the problem, that is permissible, but do not ramble. Often, a single �78 paragraph of background information followed by a concise statement of the problem is all that is needed. The introduction contains observations from the literature and from personal experiences that present the nature of the problem. In describing what others have done, your purpose is not to present a complete literature review. Instead, present the highlights of the work that is most directly pertinent to your own study. Save the details for the Literature Review chapter, which generally follows the Introduction. The author also states how to study the problem. In describing your research methods in the Introduction, your purpose is not to divulge all of the details that are found in the later chapter on Methods and Materials. Instead, you should simply give the big picture—an overview—that is sufficient to give the reader a general sense of the material that follows. Many studies have a hypothesis statement that is the controlling idea of the research and helps the author focus on what work will be done. Other studies may not have a specific hypothesis but may be an exploratory study. In either case, the specifics of the how the author will study the question are laid out as objectives. You may find it easier to write the Introduction after you have written well-edited drafts of the Literature Review, Methods and Materials, Results and Discussion chapters. It is hard to give an overview of these items before they have been written. You may also find it helpful to think of a progression from the title to the Abstract to the Introduction. The title gives the reader an extremely compact synopsis of the thesis, the Abstract expands on the title and the Introduction expands on the Abstract. For additional reading on this topic, see Trelease (1958) and Day (1979). Also examine the pages of the well-edited journals in your discipline to see how others have handled the problem of writing an Introduction. �79 Day, R.A. 1998. How to Write and Publish a Scientific Paper. 5th Edition. Oryx Press, Phoenix, Arizona. 296 pp. Trelease, S.F. 1958. How to Write Scientific and Technical Papers. MIT Press, Cambridge, MA. 185 pp. Literature Review A literature review is an examination of a body of literature relevant to your research question. The researcher becomes aware of the latest knowledge about a field of endeavour and examines strengths and weaknesses of techniques used in conducting that particular research. The literature review organizes information and synthesizes the information into what is known and what is not known, possibly identifying controversy and finally proposing research questions. The review should be done to a large extent before starting experiments or surveys. It is essential to consult what the experts in your field have to say. Students often ask how long it should be. There is no recommended length; topics that have been well researched have long literature reviews. A point to remember is not to omit relevant papers by people who are likely to be your second reader. The literature review helps the researcher focus and think critically about the chosen topic, and guides the author to take the most fruitful direction. The two sources listed below offer further information on writing a literature review: Hart, C. 1998. Doing a Literature Review: Releasing the Social Science Research Imagination. Sage Publications, London, England. 230 pp. Although focussed on social science research, this is a good general text on literature reviews. Skeyne, A. n.d.. Writing a Literature Review. University of Toronto Writing Centre, Toronto, ON. http://ctl.utsc.utoronto.ca/twc/sites/default/files/LitReview.pdf. Nov. 8, 2013. Here are some suggestions to help with your literature review: �80 Before going too far towards researching and writing your own literature review, study a few examples of successful literature reviews in the well-edited journals of your discipline. It is often helpful to see how others have tackled the problem you are about to engage. • Be sure to report the results of others who have worked on a similar problem. For example, you may find that others have studied the same phenomenon but in a different species or they may have studied the same species but in a different geographic area. • Consider working backwards as follows: 1) identify the major conclusions of your own work; 2) identify the experimental (or other data based) results you used to establish those conclusions; 3) identify the research methods you used to produce those critical results; and 4) identify the published work you must cite in order to document the research methods used and the lines of reasoning you followed to interpret your experimental results. Binding Following examination and acceptance of an undergraduate thesis, the original manuscript and several printed copies must be bound. Both a cover page and a title page are required for theses. Thesis Guidelines Responsibility for NRMT 4020 is shared by: 1) the Faculty Council of the Faculty of Natural Resources Management, 2) the faculty supervisor and 3) the second reader. The Faculty Council is responsible for setting general objectives, regulations and �81 evaluation procedures for the course. This document outlines these responsibilities. There is, however, room within the Faculty's general policy for faculty supervisors and second readers to express their individual discretion. This being the case, individual faculty (supervisors and, if appropriate, second readers) are responsible to prepare and make available to the student written information concerning his/her specific course requirements and evaluation procedures, and to file a copy of this information with the Chairs of the HBScF and HBEM programs depending in what program the student is registered in. The supervisor and the second reader should keep one another informed as to their individual requirements as well. The objective of NRMT 4020 is to provide a vehicle for students to: • increase their discipline knowledge of a subject area of special interest; • develop learning skills associated with independent study; • confront the problems associated with planning and managing a large project; and • develop the organizational and communication skills associated with the preparation of a technical report (the thesis). NRMT 4020 has the following requirements • The undergraduate thesis is an original piece of work that may create new information or organize existing information in a new or otherwise unique manner. • The thesis has a single author, although data may be shared by more than one student with the approval of all supervisors involved. • The thesis project is under the direct supervision of a faculty member or adjunct professor. Second readers are usually other faculty or professionals in the field �82 (R.P.F., P.Eng., etc.). Check with the Chair if you have a question about supervisors or second readers. • Students choose their own thesis topic of interest to them and their supervisor (within the limitations above); however, the supervisor must agree to the choice in both cases. In some cases a student may develop new interests or a thesis project does not materialize as expected. In these cases a student may change their thesis topic, supervisor and/or second reader with the approval of the supervisors involved and the Chair of their program. In these cases a revised Undergraduate Thesis Information Sheet must be submitted to the Chair. See Table 1 for a suggested schedule of submissions, deadlines and penalties for the written portions of the thesis. • The thesis is presented in accordance with the formal specifications given in the Faculty of Natural Resources Management Writing Manual. • The final draft of the thesis is graded by both the thesis supervisor and the second reader. These two marks will be averaged to determine the final mark. If the supervisor and the second reader are far apart in their evaluations of the thesis, the Chair may seek the advice of a third reader. The Chair will usually be able to mediate such disputes to the satisfaction of all involved. If not, the student may request a reappraisal of their mark as outlined in the University Calendar. See Table 2 for an example of a final mark calculation. • Individual faculty have the option of reducing a student's final mark if the student fails to meet a specified schedule of deadlines (suggested below). The application of penalty points is at the discretion of the supervisor with the following exception. �83 The Chair will determine the penalty associated with the first deadline (submission of the Thesis Information Sheet). Students should discuss this matter with their supervisor early in the thesis process to ensure that both parties are familiar with and aware of the potential effect of late submissions. • Three bound copies of the finished thesis, signed by the student, the supervisor and the second reader, and a copy of the abstract, must be submitted to the Chair. The copies will be distributed to the Chancellor Paterson Library, to the supervisor and to the Faculty of Natural Resources Management. Additional copies, for the second reader for example, are the responsibility of the student. A student's NRMT 4020 final mark will not be submitted to the Registrar's Office until the signed, bound theses are submitted. Students are therefore advised that failure to meet the mid-April deadline may prevent them from graduating at Spring Convocation. Table 1. Suggested schedule of submissions, deadlines and penalties for the thesis. Submission 1 2 3 4 Thesis Information Sheet to the Chair Thesis Proposal to Supervisor* First Draft to Supervisor Three Bound Copies to the Chair Deadline End of September Max. penalty points 5 Mid-October Beginning of March Mid-April 5 5 5 *NOTE: Individual faculty may wish to follow a different marking scheme from points 2-4 in the first column above. If so, they are responsible to prepare and make available to the student written information concerning his/her course requirements and evaluation �84 procedures, and to file a copy of this information with the Chairs of the appropriate program. Table 2. Example of final mark calculation. Item Max. Obtained Marks Marks Supervisor 50 40 Second Reader 50 42 Sub-total 100 82 Submission of Thesis Info Sheet -5 0 (on time) Submission of Thesis Proposal -5 -2 (late) Submission of First Draft -5 -3 (late, low quality) Submission of Three Bound Copies -5 0 (on time) Adjustments for Meeting Schedule: FINAL MARK (Adjusted Total) 77 �85 CHECKLIST FOR SUBMISSION OF FORMAL REPORTS AND ESSAYS o Submission requirements—due date, length, format, single or partnered writing—are understood and met. o Topic chosen is appropriate for length and research requirements. o Purpose of paper is clearly stated in the Introduction. o Literature review is part of Introduction. o Academic, peer-reviewed sources are included in research. o When paraphrased or quoted directly, the work of others is credited. o In-text references are cited, using the author/date method in parentheses with no comma between author and date. o Tables and/or figures (including photos) taken from other sources have been credited. o All tables or figures used are introduced and explained in the text of the paper. o The results section begins with a written introduction, not a table or figure. o All measurements are in SI Units; if an original measurement is not metric, the SI Unit will be provided. o Scientific names and authorities follow the first use of a species’ common name. o Common names are not capitalized (e.g., white pine), unless they contain proper nouns (e.g., Canada goose). o Acronyms or abbreviations are used only after the full term has been used the first time followed by the acronym in parenthesis. o Document has been proofread carefully, and typographical, spelling and punctuation errors have been corrected. o Margins conform to guidelines: top, bottom & right margins: 2.5 cm; left margin: 4.0 cm. o Font is a conventional size (12 pt.). Lakehead University has adopted Arial for communications, but Times New Roman is also used for papers. o Headings, if used, follow in order (1st to 6th levels) and conform to Manual guidelines for positioning, capitalization and spacing from top margin and preceding and following text. o Literature Cited section is organized alphabetically, by authors’ last names. o Contractions and colloquial language (slang) are not used. o Commonly misused words have been edited and corrected during proofreading process: data means findings and is plural; species is both the singular and plural form; metre is the preferred spelling; it’s means it is and is not the possessive pronoun its; would of is not synonymous with would’ve; use would have. o Commonly misspelled words have been edited and corrected during the proofreading process: e.g., affect/effect, lead/led, their/they're/there, then/than, principle/principal/ were/where, etc. �86 PROFESSIONAL EMAIL When emailing professionals, such as instructors or future employers, keep the following principles in mind: • In general, two types of email are used professionally—the informal message, which is an electronic equivalent to a note or memo, and formal communications—letters, papers, etc.—sent electronically. • All professional email should reflect you as a person and show that you are capable of high-quality work. • Professional email should follow the same standards of format and correctness as are outlined in this manual. • Include your affiliation and contact information with emails. � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Style Guide Hyperlink A link, or reference, to another resource on the Internet. URL <a href="https://docs.google.com/document/d/1crDVS9sxdIWC13QDI5UDbWnIHKTEZAiks3Lw3goSAkk/edit?usp=sharing" title="NRMT Style Guide" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer">NRMT Style Guide</a> Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Natural Resources Management Writing Manual and Style Guide Subject The topic of the resource NRMT https://writingresources.lakeheadu.ca/files/original/69b26f28fd02bcce08a8d4319a06fd19.pdf 7ebe85efb4c71563e9cd8946dd1fb9f3 PDF Text Text LAKEHEAD UNIVERSITY DEPARTMENT OF HISTORY History Essay Guide http://history.lakeheadu.ca Contents Introduction 1 General Formatting Information 2 Originality in Undergraduate Essays 3 How to Use Footnotes & Endnotes 4 Footnote & Endnote Formatting 5 Footnote & Endnote Examples 5 Bibliographies 8 University Regulations on Academic Dishonesty 8 Useful Internet Links © 2006 Lakehead University Department History 8 Introduction The purpose of this guide is to provide you with general information about the Department of History’s guidelines for undergraduate history essays. On the left side of this page, you will find a “Table of Contents” indicating where information can be found throughout this guide. Please note that some instructors may require variations to the information provided in this guide. When in doubt about how your essays should be formatted in a particular course, consult your syllabus first and, if you are still unsure, contact the instructor. As is mentioned a number of times in this guide, all students enrolled in history courses are strongly encouraged to purchase a copy of the latest edition of Kate L. Turabian’s A Manual for Writers of Term Papers, Theses, and Dissertations (available in the University Bookstore). The reason for this is simple: while most basic formatting issues are dealt with in this guide, not all have been. rd th As you proceed into the 3 and 4 Years of your program, the Turabian book will be invaluable. General Formatting Information Unless otherwise indicated by your course instructor, all essays written for history courses at Lakehead University must be: Please note that APA and MLA methods are not used by historians and are not acceptable in papers submitted to members of the History Department. • Typewritten in 12pt Times-New Roman font; • Double-spaced; • Paginated; • Use 1” margins on all sides; Serious students of History should also become acquainted with Jacques Barzun and Henry F. Graff, The Modern Researcher (the latest edition of which is also available in the Lakehead University. • Be provided with footnotes (or endnotes) and bibliography composed in accordance with Kate L. Turabian’s A Manual for Writers of Term Papers, Theses, and Dissertations. Note: The examples provided in this guide are based on th the 6 edition. �History Essay Guide Page 2 of 8 Originality in Undergraduate Essays Most undergraduate students, lacking access to large collections of unexploited manuscripts and documents, will not produce original pieces of historical writing in the sense that they will unearth new evidence or create completely new solutions for long-standing historical problems. Suffrage Poster circa 1916 “In written work, sloppy English indicates sloppy thinking.” Each piece of writing is original, however, if it clearly bears the impress of the writer's own thinking (even though it contains evidence, ideas, and arguments drawn from the work of others, with appropriate acknowledgement in footnotes). It is perfectly possible, and highly commendable, to use the insights of others in such a way as to arrive at new insights of your own. The scope for originality lies in the way in which the question is tackled -- in the effort and ingenuity used in tracking down available sources of information, and in the organisation, convincingness, and intelligibility of the resulting piece of writing. It is by these criteria that essays will be judged: Sources of Information Do not depend upon general history surveys, encyclopædias and textbooks; seek more specialised books, articles, and documents whenever possible. Organisation Lake Tambyln Bridge An essay should have three parts: i) An introductory section, of not more than one or two paragraphs, indicating how you intend to approach the question and what you do and do not intend to deal with; ii) A body, comprising most of the paper, where you present your arguments and evidence in a logical manner, taking each aspect of the subject in turn and dealing with it fully before moving to the next; and iii) A conclusion, of not more than one or two paragraphs, summing up your answer. Be sure to provide a clearlystated conclusion. Your thoughts (and hence your essay) should be organised in such a way that both of you and the reader know exactly what each sentence and paragraph contributes to the paper, and how each part relates to the whole. With organisation, your thoughts will flow logically from one aspect of the subject to the next, and the reader will follow your lead. Experimenting with various alternative outlines before you start writing is one of the best means of achieving a well-organised essay. Convincingness The most common fault in undergraduate essays (and, indeed, in examinations) is that of failing to answer the question which was asked and instead answering some related, but different, question. The solution is to read the question very carefully and be sure that you understand precisely what is required. This seems self-evident, but in fact requires practice. Learn to recognise and concentrate on the key words and phrases in any question. Ten minutes of concentrated thought before you open a book can save you ten hours of fruitless, because irrelevant, reading in the library. A simple recital of facts will earn, at best, a grade of "C" or "D". A good piece of writing requires that the author apply the facts (the evidence) in such a way as to produce a reasoned argument. As in any argument, you will probably favour and stress one position more than another, but in doing so you should at least indicate your awareness of, and reasons for rejecting or de-emphasising, the other points of view. Continued on the Next Page © 2006 Lakehead University Department of History �History Essay Guide Page 3 of 8 Intelligibility The language that you should use should be easily understandable and should communicate precisely what you want to say. It is for this reason, and not because they are vitally important in themselves, that grammar, spelling, and punctuation require close attention. Choose your words carefully and be sure you know what they mean before using them. A good dictionary is an indispensable tool for any writer, whether novice or a Nobel laureate. Other invaluable aids to the achievement of intelligibility are Roget's Thesaurus of English Words and Phrases and H.W. Fowler's Modern English Usage. If the question you are trying to answer contains terms that may be interpreted in various ways (e.g. "a revolutionary development"), explain in your introduction the range of meaning you intend to apply to them in the course of your paper. In written work, sloppy English indicates sloppy thinking. Chancellor Paterson Library How to use footnotes/endnotes 1. Where do I place them? They may be placed EITHER at the bottom of the page (when they are known as footnotes) OR at the end of the paper before the bibliography (when they are known as endnotes). 2. When do I provide a footnote or endnote? a) When you copy more than two or three consecutive words from a book, article, or any other source, YOU MUST PLACE these words in quotation marks and provide a footnote/endnote. Such direct quotations should: i) ii) iii) consist of the exact words of the source; fit grammatically; be used sparingly. If more than one-fifth of your paper consists of direct quotations, concentrate more on using your own words. expressing it in your own words (which you should try to do as much as possible) no quotation marks are necessary, but a footnote/endnote should be provided. Footnotes/endnotes are simply form of intellectual honesty and should be regarded as such. It is better to err in the side of too many, rather than too few footnotes/endnotes per page, though this will vary considerably with the nature of the topic, the sources being used, and your particular approach to the topic of question. PLAGIARISM IS TO BE AVOIDED AT ALL COSTS, AND WILL BE VERY SEVERELY DEALT WITH SHOULD IT OCCUR. See page 8 for more information on Plagiarism. See the next page for Footnote/Endnote Formatting. b) When you are borrowing an idea or information from a book, etc. but © 2006 Lakehead University Department of History Remember: It is better to over-footnote than under-footnote. Err on the side of caution. �History Essay Guide Page 4 of 8 Footnote/Endnote Formatting Footnotes are useful for the following purposes: To identify quotations; To acknowledge indebtedness for words or ideas borrowed; To indicate where additional evidence or comment may be found in printed books and other authoritative sources; To furnish additional material or discussion which is pertinent (otherwise it should not be mentioned at all) but which would disturb the proportions of the text if included there; To refer to other parts of the treatise itself; 1. These may be placed at the bottom of the page or at the end of the paper before the bibliography as endnotes. 2. In terms of number, err on the side of caution, that is, over-footnote rather than under-footnote. 3. Number footnotes consecutively, i.e. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 . . . 4. Do not collapse footnotes -- e.g. Smith, . . . 50-60 – instead write out a new footnote every time you change pages. You can save time and space when you cite different pages from the same source consecutively by using Ibid. For example, Each book must be footnoted in its full citation only once. Thereafter, you can use the author's name, comma, page number. e.g. Smith, 50. If one author has written more than one book, you must also include the name of the book. Place the footnote after the first sentence containing the relevant information from the new source. The reader will assume that all the information in the sentence up to the sentence ending in the next footnote is either from the same page of the same or your own original work. Smith, . . ., 50. Ibid., 52. Ibid., 56. Ibid., 60. Footnote/Endnote Examples References to Books and Pamphlets The complete form of a footnote reference to a printed book includes the following details in this order and with the punctuation indicated: a. the author's name (given name or initials first), followed by a comma; b. the title of the book, underlined, followed by a comma; c. the name of the editor or translator (if any), preceded by the abbreviation "ed." or "trans.", and followed by a comma; d. the number of the edition used (if not the first), followed by a semicolon; e. the name of the place of publication, followed by a colon; f. the name of the publisher, followed by a comma; g. the year of publication, followed by a comma; h. the volume number in capital Roman numerals (if the edition used consists of more than one volume), followed by a comma; i. the number(s) of the page(s) to which particular reference is made -- unless the work has more than one volume -- and followed by a period. The abbreviation "Vol." is not normally used in a footnote reference, and it is standard practice to omit "p." and "pp." in reference to works of more than one volume. Thus "II, 171-182" means "Volume II, pages 171 to 182". Many scholars prefer to enclose items (d), (e), (f), and (g) within parentheses, omitting the comma after (c). Continued on the Next Page © 2006 Lakehead University Department of History �History Essay Guide Page 5 of 8 A footnote containing most of these items looks like this if it is to go into typewritten discussion: 2. G.E. Lessing, The Education of the Human Race, trans. F.W. Robertson (4th ed.; London: Kegan Paul, Trench, 1883), 47. Reference to Periodicals and Newspapers The complete form of a footnote reference to an article in a periodical includes the following details in this order and with the punctuation indicated: a. The author's name (given name or initials first) followed by a comma; b. The title of the article in double quotation marks, followed by a comma; c. The title of the periodical underlined, followed by a comma; d. The volume number in capital Roman numerals; e. The date of the issue or volume to which reference is made, enclosed in parentheses and followed by a colon; f. The number of the page or pages to which particular reference is made, followed by a period. A footnote containing all these items should appear in this form: First World War Recruiting Poster 7. W.C.D Pacey, "Balzac and Thackeray," Modern Language Review, XXXVI (1941): 213-224. Additional Examples Work by one author: 1. Gilbert Norwood, Platus and Terence (New York: Longmans, Green, 1932), 53. Work by three authors: 2. H.R. Plomer, G.H. Bushnell, and E.R. McC. Dix. A Dictionary of the Printers and Booksellers Who Were at Work in England, Scotland and Ireland from 1726 to 1775 (Oxford: University Press, for the Bibliographical Society, 1932), 206. Work by more than three authors: 3. W.H. Auden and others, The Internet of the Critic (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1941), 27. Work in several volumes, each with separate subtitle: 4. Reuben Gold Thwaites, ed., The Jesuit Relations and Allied Documents, Vol. XLV: Lower Canada, Acadia, Iroquois, Ottawas: 1659-1660 (Cleveland: Burrows, 1899), 2025. Pamphlet (one of series not issued at regular intervals): 5. A.E. Stamp, Methods of Chronology, Historical Association Leaflet, No. 92 (London: Bell, 1933), 5. Continued on the Next Page © 2006 Lakehead University Department of History “Clarity. Clarity. Clarity. When you become hopelessly mired in a sentence, it is best to start fresh." From Strunk and White’s The Elements of Style �History Essay Guide Page 6 of 8 Recent edition of early printed work: “Writing is long periods of thinking and short periods of writing.” - Ernest Hemingway 6. Lewes Lavater, Of Ghosts and Spirites Walking by Nyght (1572) ed. J. Dover Wilson and May Yardley (Oxford: University Press, for the Shakespeare Association, 1929), 88-97. Early manuscript document printed in a collection: 7. Cotton, Mather. "A Brand Pluck'd out of the Burning" (1693), in George Lincoln Burr, ed., Narratives of the Witchcraft Cases 1684-1706 (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, [1914], 259-287. Published diaries and letters: 8. Henry Kelsey, The Kelsey Papers, intro. Arthur G. Doughty and Chester Martin (Ottawa: The Public Archives of Canada and The Public Record Office of Northern Ireland, 1929), 19-25. 9. Diary of the First Earl of Egmont, Hist. MSS. Comm. (London: H.M. Stationery Office, 1923), II, 161. Collection of readings: 10. William Smith Clark II, ed., Chief Patterns of World Drama (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, [1946]), 406. Work in foreign language: 11. Henri Bresson, La Religion des classiques 1660-1685 (Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1948), 47-52. 12. Karl Kerényi, Romandichtung und Mythologie (Zurich: Reinverlag, 1945), 19. 13. Benedetto Croce, Nuovi saggi di estetica (Bari: Laterza, 1920), 34-41. Translation: Cover of Canadian Aviation Magazine, circa 1941-1945. Featured is the Fort William produced “Hurricane Bomber” 14. Kuno Fischer, A Critique of Kant, trans. W.S. Hough (London: Swan Sonnenschein, Lowery, 1888), 37-40. Article in periodical or annual volume: 15. "Some Account of the Harleian Collection of Manuscripts," Annual Register, VI (1763), 140-155. 16. William M. Clyde, "Parliament and the Press," Library, ser. 4, XIII (1933), 395-424. 17. Watson Kirkconnell, "Six Sixteenth-Century Forerunners of Milton's Samson Agonistes," Trans. Roy. Soc. Can., ser. 3, XLIII (June 1949), Section II, 73-85. Unsigned newspaper article: 18. "U.S. Statement and Shipkov Affidavit on Bulgaria," New York Times, March 5, 1950, sec. 1, 46-47. Continued on the Next Page © 2006 Lakehead University Department of History �History Essay Guide Page 7 of 8 Essay in a collection by one author: 19. Irving Babbitt, "Humanist and Specialist", in his Spanish Character and Other Essays (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1940), 183-197. Contribution to single-volume miscellany by various authors: 20. Herbert Davis, "The Manuscript of Swift's Sermon on Brotherly Love," in Pope and His Contemporaries, eds. James L. Clifford and Louis A. Landa, (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1949), 147-158. Article in encyclopaedia or similar compilation: 21. F.E. S[kone] J[ames], "Copyright", Encyclopaedia Britannica, 14th ed. (1929), V, 413-418. [Or abbreviate title" Ency. Brit.] Parliamentary records: 22. House of Lords Debates, 5th ser., 138 (1945-46), 692-695. 23. Canada, Parliament, House of Commons, Official Report of Debates, October 15, 1930, 5632. A Note on Internet Sources Many instructors do not allow the use of Internet sources. However, if allowed the following information must be provided: • • • 24. Congressional Record, 79th Cong., 1st sess., 91:5 (June 15, 1945), 6087. 25. Testimony of William Johnson, Parliamentary History of England (London, 1803), XVII, cols. 1078-1110. • Statute: • 26. 12 George II, c. 36, s. 4. [Or, 12 George II, c. 36. s. 4.] • Law report: Author's name; Title of document, in quotation marks; Title of complete work (if relevant), in italics or underlined; Date of publication or last revision; URL, in angle brackets; Date of access, in parentheses; Internet Documents (Website): Do not use a site that cannot provide all of the above information. Also, you must exercise the same judgment in evaluating an Internet site as you would any other source. The onus is on the researcher to make sure the information, and those providing it, can be trusted. 31. Gail Mortimer, The William Faulkner Society Home Page, 16 September 1999, <http://www.utep.edu/mortimer/faulkner/main faulkner.htm> (Accessed 19 November 1997). If in doubt, contact your instructor. 27. Gyles v. Wilcox (1740), 2 Atk. 141, Barn. C. 368. Unpublished manuscript: 28. Public Archives of Nova Scotia, Manuscript Documents, vol. 35, dc. 2, Cornwallis to Lords of Trade, July 24, 1749. 29. Bodleian Librarian, Rawlinson MSS., J, fol. 6. Unpublished dissertation: 30. E.C. Morgan, "The Public Career of Joseph Addison" (Ph.D. diss., University of North Carolina, 1941), 196. Internet Documents (E-Journal): 32. Tonya Browning, "Embedded Visuals: Student Design in Web Spaces," Kairos: A © 2006 Lakehead University Department of History  See to the left for examples �Page 8 of 8 “Plagiarism” shall be deemed to include: 1. Plagiarism of ideas where an idea of an author or speaker is incorporated into the body of an assignment as through it were the writer’s idea, i.e. no credit is given the person through referencing or Journal for Teachers of Writing in Webbed Environments 3, no. 1 (1997), <http://english.ttu.edu/kairos /2.1/features/browning/index.html> (Accessed 21 October 1999). Internet Documents (Newspaper): 33. Christopher Wren, "A Body on Mt. Everest, a Mystery Half-Solved," New York Times on the Web, 5 May 1999, <http://search.nytimes.com/search/daily/bin/fastweb?getdoc+site+ site+87604+0+wAAA+%22a%7Ebody%7Eon%7Emt.%7Eeverest%22> (Acessed13 May 1999). Bibliographies See a style guide for further citation examples, or consult your instructor. This should consist of an alphabetical listing, by author's surname, of all sources cited in your footnotes/endnotes, and only of these sources. footnoting or endnoting. 2. Plagiarism of words occurs when phrases, sentences, tables, or illustrations of an author are incorporated into the body of a writer’s own, i.e. no quotations or indentations (depending on the format followed) are present but referencing or footnoting or endnoting is given. 3. Plagiarism of ideas and words where words and idea(s) of an author or speaker are incorporated into the body of a written assignment as though University Regulations on Academic Dishonesty* “The University takes a most serious view of offences against academic honesty such as plagiarism (see side panel), cheating, and impersonation. Penalties for dealing with such offences will be strictly enforced. A copy of the “Code of Student Behaviour and Disciplinary Procedures” including sections on plagiarism and other forms of misconduct may be obtained from the Office of the Registrar. The following rules shall govern the treatment of candidates who have been found guilty of attempting to obtain academic credit dishonestly. a) The minimum penalty for a candidate found guilty of plagiarism, or of cheating on any part of a course, will be a zero for the work concerned. b) A candidate found guilty of cheating on a formal examination or a test, or of a serious or repeated plagiarism, or of unofficially obtaining a copy of an examination paper before the examination is scheduled to be written, will receive a zero for the course and may be expelled from the University. Students disciplined under the “Code of Student Behaviour and Disciplinary Procedures” may appeal their case through the judicial panel.” * From the Lakehead University Calendar available online at http://www/lakeheadu.ca/calendar/ they were the writer’s own words and ideas, i.e. no quotations or indentations (depending on format followed) are present and no referencing or footnoting or endnoting is given. From www.lakeheadu.ca/calendar/ Useful Internet Links Lakehead University Writing Centre http://writingcentre.lakeheadu.ca/ Lakehead University Learning Assistance Centre http://learningassistance.lakeheadu.ca/ Lakehead University Library http://library.lakeheadu.ca/ Lakehead University Library Guide to History Holdings http://library.lakeheadu.ca/wp/?pg=105 © 2006 Lakehead University Department of History � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Style Guide Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Lakehead University Department of History Essay Guide Subject The topic of the resource HIST essay guide HIST https://writingresources.lakeheadu.ca/files/original/ef8aace4cdcd13ad0bb1d94169f2b185.pdf 8eac1166d4a2a6aad59655556d46f270 PDF Text Text RUNNING HEAD: ACADEMIC WRITING MODULE The Basics of Academic Writing for Education Students 2016 Edition Teacher Candidates’ Copy Created by: Meridith Lovell-Johnston and Rosemary Hartley (With much-appreciated input from our colleagues!) Faculty of Education Lakehead University, Orillia August, 2016 �Academic Writing 1 Table of Contents Introduction ..................................................................................................................................... 2 Rationale ..................................................................................................................................... 2 Learning Goals ............................................................................................................................ 3 Success Criteria ........................................................................................................................... 4 Part One: Word Choice ................................................................................................................... 5 Introduction: Choosing the Best Most Appropriate Word for the Job Writing Task ................. 5 A Better Way to Say It ............................................................................................................ 5 Words That Are Commonly Misused ..................................................................................... 6 Describe Action Clearly Through Accurate Verb Choice .................................................... 10 Part Two: Sentence-Level Syntax (Grammar) .............................................................................. 14 Creating Effective Sentences: Order of Clauses and Awkward Wording ................................ 14 Special: Prepositional Phrases .............................................................................................. 15 Creating Effective Sentences: Clauses Must Agree.................................................................. 16 Tense Agreement .................................................................................................................. 16 Pronoun Agreement .............................................................................................................. 16 Singular-Plural Agreement ................................................................................................... 19 Perspective Agreement (First, Second, and Third Person) ................................................... 20 Parallel Clausal Structure ...................................................................................................... 22 Part Three: Conventions of Written Language ............................................................................. 23 Spelling ..................................................................................................................................... 23 Capitalization ............................................................................................................................ 25 Sentence-Level Punctuation...................................................................................................... 25 End Punctuation: Periods, Question Marks, and Exclamation Marks .................................. 26 Commas ................................................................................................................................ 26 Semicolons ............................................................................................................................ 26 Quotation Marks ................................................................................................................... 27 Part Four: Types of Writing in the Professional Program ............................................................ 28 Email ......................................................................................................................................... 28 Essay ......................................................................................................................................... 28 Lesson Plan ............................................................................................................................... 29 Philosophy of Teaching (Or, of Anything Else) ....................................................................... 30 Rationale or Critique ................................................................................................................. 31 Reflection .................................................................................................................................. 31 Report (Formal) ........................................................................................................................ 32 Summary or Abstract ................................................................................................................ 33 References ..................................................................................................................................... 36 �Academic Writing 2 The Basics of Academic Writing Introduction This module was designed to review basic grammar and writing skills for students in the professional program. Although this module is not comprehensive of all grammatical rules, it addresses issues that instructors have identified as frequently appearing in the writing of students in the professional program. As you progress through the module, you will be asked to respond to a variety of questions such as multiple choice, fill-in-the-blank, and long-answer questions relating to the content discussed. Rationale Success in your written assignments for your courses, as well as for your placements, is influenced, in part, by your ability to communicate effectively in writing. Thus, it is vital to have an in-depth understanding of the mechanics of writing such as precise and appropriate word choice, effective construction of sentences, and correct use of capitalization and punctuation because these features influence the clarity and overall sophistication of your writing. These mechanics are rarely caught by spell checkers; they require you to consider the content and context of what you are writing and method by which you will communicate the message (oral vs written, formal vs informal, procedural vs description, etc.). Much of what you write and the way in which you write it is governed by the purpose and format of the writing. For example, the language used for a report is different than the language used for a reflection. Thus, it is very important to consider the type of writing required as well as your instructor’s requirements for the assignment. Additionally, there are multiple ways to format your writing, including differing rules for punctuation such as commas, which depend on the style guide consulted. Much academic writing in education programs, journals, and other publications is formatted in the style of the American Psychological Association Manual (APA Manual) which is currently in its sixth edition. Thus, in this module, the APA Manual guidelines, called the APA Style, are the default rules used for grammar and formatting. Copies of the fifth and sixth editions of the manual are available in the Lakehead Education Library (6th edition or 5th edition). If you are unable to find an APA manual or are at home and don’t have it handy, you can consult Purdue University’s Online Writing Lab at https://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/560/01/. The Guides to Effective Instruction (Ministry of Education and Training, 2003, 2005, 2006), describe the writing process used in Ontario schools and elsewhere to teach students to become more sophisticated and effective in their writing. The stages outline a five step process where writers first gather and organize their ideas to plan their writing (Brainstorming, Generating and Selecting Ideas); then write a draft based on their plans (Drafting); revise the language use and flow of ideas (Revision); proofread and edit the work to ensure spelling and other conventions are used correctly (Editing and Proofreading); and share the work with others �Academic Writing 3 (Sharing and Publishing). Effective writers understand that successful writing is not random; it is planned in advance and revised until the author is satisfied that the writing communicates the intended message in the most effective way possible. Much of the current module addresses the stages of Revision and Editing, both of which can be quite time-consuming. However, with practice, the use of the language and conventions outlined in the module will become second nature and the need for time-consuming revision and editing will decrease. Online modules are limited in their ability to effectively assess writing and written conventions on an individual level and provide effective feedback. This module provides a review of academic writing concepts only, your instructors will often provide feedback on your writing, and it is important to reflect on and integrate their feedback into your writing in the future. However, for the purposes of this module, we have elected to use the quiz function on Desire to Learn (D2L) in order to give instantaneous feedback (as per Success Criterion 1, below). Quizzes are a form of assessment more than of teaching, though the Guides to Effective Instruction (Ministry of Education and Training, 2003, 2005, 2006) do describe the supportive relationship between assessment and instruction; assessment makes instruction more efficient by showing teachers where students may require further instruction. The final task for the module requires that you provide a written response in the form of a well-written and cohesive paragraph on a given topic. Individual feedback will be given by the module administrators (course instructors or their representatives) on your paragraph (as per Success Criterion 2, below). Please read the directions closely for each task. At the conclusion of the module, a pdf copy of the module will be made available to you for your notes. Learning Goals As you progress through this module, it is intended that you will come to understand the importance of (as well as the expectations for) precise and accurate writing (i.e., word choice, syntax/grammar, and conventions) to your success as a teacher candidate in the professional program and as a future teacher. Specifically, you will be asked to: 1. Use appropriate vocabulary for academic writing and develop a repertoire of appropriate technical vocabulary for teaching; 2. Identify and correct common errors in word choice and usage such as vague or informal language, improper agreement (tenses, plurals, pronouns, and perspectives), and homonyms; 3. Use correct sentence-level syntax; 4. Identify and correct common errors in writing conventions such as spelling, capitalization, and punctuation; and 5. Choose appropriate tone and voice for specific writing contexts. �Academic Writing 4 Success Criteria This module serves as a base on which to build your academic writing during the program and the principles herein serve as minimum standards for proficient academic and technical writing in the professional program. You may already know many of these principles and the activities will serve as reminders. However, there may be some principles you do not know. The true test of whether you understand the principles related to precise and accurate writing (word choice, syntax/grammar, and conventions) will be if you use these principles consistently in your writing during the program and in your placements. However, for the purposes of this module, the criteria for success are: 1. I can complete the quizzes with an average score of at least 75% with no individual quiz having a score below 60%. 2. I can write a paragraph of at least five sentences in length on an assigned topic that demonstrates accurate use of word choice, grammar, and conventions. �Academic Writing 5 Part One: Word Choice Introduction: Choosing the Best Most Appropriate Word for the Job Writing Task Precise and careful use of language, both written and oral, are important aspects of the professional program and of teaching in general. When the author takes care to be concise, specific, and accurate in his or her writing, it is much easier to attain an appropriate professional or academic tone and to sound confident and demonstrate your knowledge about the topic. Considered word choice is a factor that separates oral from written language. Although there are suggested ways to improve oral language in order to sound more professional, most use of oral language in the professional program will not be rehearsed and polished in advance. However, care should be taken to practice using oral language in ways that teachers use it! A Better Way to Say It In publications that deal with children’s literacy and specifically their vocabulary use, it is common to see discussion about types (i.e., Bainbridge & Heydon, 2013) or tiers (i.e., Tompkins, 2015) of vocabulary. A description of vocabulary follows so that you can see how awareness of vocabulary and the differing purposes for the various types of vocabulary can help improve the clarity of your writing. One way vocabulary is discussed is in terms of types and purposes: Basic Interpersonal Communication Skills (BICS) and Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency (CALP). BICS comprise the language types required for everyday interactions (i.e., the language of the playground). Many children are nearly fluent in their use of BICS when they enter first grade, dependent upon the types of language interactions they experienced in the past. However, one goal of literacy instruction is to teach children the more sophisticated language structures, vocabulary, and ideas required for academic success, which comprise CALP. CALP language is more precise and sophisticated, such as the difference between good and proficient. The word good has many different meanings, based on context. The word proficient is more precise and describes a level or degree of competency. In terms of your writing, it is important to use upper tier words when appropriate and to select words that specifically convey your intended meaning. For example, what does “Rhianna did a good job” actually mean? Which criteria did she meet or exceed? Whenever possible, choose simple and direct phrasing that avoids informal phrases, slang, or unneeded idiomatic terms. For example, “Rhianna sailed through her reading assessment!” Although in popular speech “sailed through” may mean that she performed the task with few difficulties, quite literally, “sailed through” would mean that Rhianna would be in a boat either physically sailing through the papers or missing the assessment due to going sailing elsewhere at the same time. A second way vocabulary is discussed is in terms of tiers: from Tier 1 to Tier 3. Related to BICS and CALP, Tier 1 language comprises the types of language required for everyday interactions (such as clock, happy, or run). Tier 2 language is related to academic settings or �Academic Writing 6 more sophisticated discourse (such as chronometer, gratified, or canter). Tier 2 words are more specific and precise, but are usually applicable across a number of academic situations and disciplines. Tier 3 words are subject- or discipline-specific terms (such as phoneme, grapheme, or isotope). It is expected that teacher candidates will incorporate subject-specific vocabulary learned in their classes when appropriate in their writing about the subject (i.e., in lesson plans, reflections, reports, or summaries). However, most of the vocabulary exercises in this module address the shift from Tier 1 to Tier 2 words, whenever possible in order to make writing more precise and clear. Here are some phrases commonly encountered in candidates’ writing and some suggestions for alternate wording. ● Instead of “John needs to work on his reading” or “John must work on his reading,” consider “John would benefit from practising his reading skills.” ● Instead of using vague descriptors such as things or stuff, use more specific language related to the situation. For example, “Please put your books into your desks.” ● Instead of using words such as good, great, or ok; consider exemplary, proficient, adequate, superior, satisfactory, acceptable, appropriate, or successful. ● During procedural or descriptive writing, do not begin sentences with the words firstly, secondly, first off, first of all, etc., instead consider first, second, next, then, etc., to describe the sequence. ● I think and I feel are appropriate for reflections and some essays, however, may not be appropriate for formal writing such as reports. For example, instead of “I think John needs to work on his fluency when reading,” consider “John would benefit from working on his reading fluency by …” The second construction sounds more professional and authoritative. Alternatively, you could use the words recommend or recommendation. For example, “A recommended strategy for improving John’s reading fluency is to scan ahead when reading in order to confirm that the words he reads makes sense in the context of the sentence.” Words That Are Commonly Misused There are many words and phrases that are used incorrectly in oral language and writing. It is common to see some of these words and phrases used in professional publications as well. Here are some of the words that are often misused in writing. Some of these errors such as misuse of the homonyms their, there, and they’re occur with alarming frequency on social media and in turn, are becoming more frequent in teacher candidates’ written assignments and in-class writing. As you read through the examples below, think about examples of use or misuse in your own writing and try to internalize the correct usage. One suggestion to avoid misusing these words is to use your word processor’s find and replace options as the last step before you do your final proofread and submit your work. (This is the strategy Meridith uses)! A chart hangs in Dr. Helyar’s office that uses humour to explain commonly misused or misspelled words (available from: http://theoatmeal.com/comics/misspelling, if you are �Academic Writing 7 interested)! Although it uses humour to illustrate its point, the fact that such a chart exists is evidence that many words are misused or misspelled in popular culture. In this section, we outline specific examples of common misusages by teacher candidates in the professional program, which were contributed by the teaching faculty. ● While and Although: While is a word that is used to describe two things that occur simultaneously such as “While she baked the cake, he decorated the house for the party.” Although and though are used to describe situations that do not occur as expected or to show contrast between two ideas. For example, “Although she paid for the snacks, he ate them all.” Writers often use while when they mean although. For example, “While she paid for the snacks, he ate them all” would only be correct if he was eating the snacks right when she was paying for them. The APA Manual (American Psychological Association, 2010) also suggests that the words and and but may be appropriate instead of while when used in the middle of the sentence. ● As, Because, and Since: As is used either to signify two things happening at the same instant such as “As she walked to the door, she saw the car pull up” or to compare two elements such as in a simile (“He is as busy as a bee”) or other comparison (“He is as tall as she is”). The word because is used to establish a cause and effect relationship between two ideas such as “He received a passing mark because he handed in all his work on time”. The APA Manual (American Psychological Association, 2010) also suggests that the word since is most precise when used to refer to time, meaning “after the specified point in time” and that because is more appropriate when providing justification or establishing a causal relationship between two ideas. It is also incorrect to begin sentences with the word because, so you may wish to revise your sentence structure and use a different construction or phrase to compare ideas. ● Either and Or; Neither and Nor: In writing, either and or are usually paired together when the result can be one of the two conditions stated. When using either and or, the phrase occurring after the either and before the or must be parallel to the phrase that occurs after the or, or else the phrase can be confusing. Two examples of correct use are: “Every day, Jason either reads a book or plays video games” and “Every day, Sunita reads either a comic book or an online fan fiction.” Similarly, neither and nor are paired together when both conditions do not occur. For example, “Neither the boy nor his mother enjoyed the concert.” ● That and Which: According to the APA Manual (American Psychological Association, 2010), “That clauses (called restrictive) are essential to the meaning of the sentence: The materials that worked well in the first experiment were used in the second experiment” (p. 83). In this case, “that worked well in the first experiment” is the restrictive clause. Without this clause, the sentence would lose much of its intended meaning: “The materials were used in the second experiment.” Which statements can be used either for restrictive or nonrestrictive clauses, though the APA recommends you use that for restrictive and which for nonrestrictive. The example used is “The cards, which worked �Academic Writing 8 well in the first experiment, were not useful in the second experiment. [The second experiment was not appropriate for the cards.]” (p. 83). Without the which statement, the meaning is still maintained: “The cards were not useful in the second experiment.” Additionally, which phrases should be offset with commas and that statements should not use commas. ● Homonyms: Homonyms refer to words that sound the same but have different meanings and spellings. There are five commonly misused homonym groupings: their-they’rethere, to-too-two, your-you’re, its-it’s, and lets-let’s. These are all proper words that are spelled correctly, so they will not be caught by the spell checking function on your word processor, though sometimes they may be caught by a grammar checking function. ○ There, Their, and They’re ■ There is probably the most commonly used word of the three. It refers to a physical place (i.e., place the books up there) or idea. It is often used when explaining ideas (There are many reasons why …), though more active verbs may be used instead (Many reasons exist that explain…). ■ Their is used to show possession by multiple people and is a plural pronoun (i.e., They worked on their project last night - a single project belonged to all of them, or The teacher asked the students to work on their projects - each child or group of children owns the project). The distinction between how many students own each project is important. If there will be only one project for all the students in the class, then use singular. Notice that we said “possession by multiple people” above. Many times, in the effort to maintain gender neutrality, authors will substitute them for “he or she” and their for “his or her”, particularly because them or their sound less awkward. This usage is incorrect. If you are speaking about a specific student, use the appropriate gendered pronoun (or appropriate substitute) to represent the individual’s gender or sexual orientation (American Psychological Association, 2010, pp. 73-74). If speaking about individuals in general where the gender is not specified or the group is mixed, then you would use a singular pronoun or both singular pronouns (i.e., Each student will complete his or her own project or you can remove the pronouns and reword the sentence to Each student will complete an individual project). For precision of expression, the best practice would be to consistently use plural when referring to more than one specific student (i.e., The students will complete their own projects). ■ They’re is a contraction that represents the words “they are”. In formal academic writing, you should avoid using contractions, instead, writing “they are”. However, some instructors do permit the use of contractions in their papers; if in doubt, contact your instructor. ○ To, Too, and Two �Academic Writing 9 ■ Unless you are discussing quantity, the word you are most likely to use is the word to. To is a preposition that is used in multiple contexts such as to show motion (i.e., He ran to the store), to begin prepositional phrases when joined with certain verbs (i.e., It was attached to the paper with a staple), or to show limits (i.e., The tree grew to five metres in height). Although the word to is often to many verbs, it should never be used to end a clause or sentence (i.e., Where are you going to?). If possible, add another word to clarify (i.e., Where are you going to go?), remove the preposition (i.e., Where are you going?), or move the word to to the beginning of the clause, which is not appropriate for this example). ■ Too is an adverb used to mean as well or also (i.e., He wants to go too) or to show something to be more or excessive (i.e., She ate too many sweets at the party). ■ Two is used as a noun or adjective to show quantity or to replace the numeral 2. (i.e., They had two puppies). As a side note, the APA format recommends that the words be written (i.e., one, two, three) for the numbers ten and below if using them in formal writing, unless you are discussing something that is measured such as in math (10 cm or $9) or where you have multiple numbers in a row that will cause confusion (i.e., Ask, two grade 2 students…). You would not mix written words and numerals in a list (i.e., not He asked for 60, ten, and 15 dollars from his friends, respectively, to cover costs). ○ Your and You’re ■ Your shows possession (i.e., This is your book). ■ You’re is a contraction that represents the words “you are”. In formal academic writing, you should avoid using contractions, instead, writing “you are”. However, some instructors do permit the use of contractions in their papers; if in doubt, contact your instructor. ■ Ur should never appear in your formal writing. ○ Its and It’s ■ Its is a pronoun that means “belonging to it”. Normally an apostrophe is used when showing possession such as Meridith’s book, but not for pronouns such as his, her, and its, which is probably why it’s is used frequently when the author means its. ■ It’s is a contraction that represents the words “it is”. In formal academic writing, you should avoid using contractions, instead, writing “it is”. However, some instructors do permit the use of contractions in their papers; if in doubt, contact your instructor. ○ Lets and Let’s �Academic Writing 10 ● ● ● ● ■ Lets is a verb which means “grants permission to” or “allows”. For example, “Our teacher lets us listen to music during gym time.” ■ More frequently, writers mean let’s, which is contraction that represents the words “let us” and is often used to ask the question “Shall we?” In formal academic writing, you should avoid using contractions, though the use of let’s is an ambiguous area, because it is often used in lesson plans when describing dialogue and “Let us” is not commonly used in oral language. Spelt, Learnt, Dreamt, etc.: In the English language, the main past tense marker is “ed”. When the “ed” is pronounced at the end of a word, it can either sound like /d/ or /t/ depending on the base word and its spelling. This special spelling and pronunciation for the past tense marker is known as the flap. Young children (and popular culture) will sometimes spell the /t/ with a “t” (phonologically-based spelling), but more mature spellers understand the morphological information (that it represents a past tense verb) and will consistently use the “ed” marker. Spelling the flap with “t” is incorrect in most cases, however some dictionaries and spell checkers do not consider it to be an error, particularly because these words are sometimes used in poetic language. For formal writing, please use spelled, learned, dreamed, etc. Constantly, Always, and Consistently: Many times, teacher candidates will use the word constantly when they mean consistently. For example, “Students will constantly use correct punctuation.” By using this wording, the author is saying that the students will do this and only this, and because the end period is not specified, they will be punctuating, constantly, forever! Likewise, “Students will always use correct punctuation” would have a similar meaning, unless qualified such as “Students will always use correct punctuation when writing stories”, however this wording is awkward. If you intend to say that students will do something each time, a far better word would be consistently, such as “Students will consistently use correct punctuation in their story writing” or “Students will use correct punctuation consistently when writing stories”. Based off and based on or upon: There are many examples, of which this is one, of times when teacher candidates choose inappropriate prepositions in their writing. Instead of saying “The decision was based off (of) his performance on the exam”, a more proper way to communicate the idea would be “The decision was based on his poor performance on the exam” or “The basis for the decision was his poor performance on the exam” or “They made a decision based upon the information they had gathered”. If I was and If I were: According to quora.com, both If I was and If I were are correct, however, If I were is technically more correct and is typically used in more formal language. For example, “If I were to assess the students now, I would ask them to write a paragraph about their experiences”. Describe Action Clearly Through Accurate Verb Choice �Academic Writing 11 One of the most common word choice errors reported by instructors in the professional program is the selection of inappropriate verbs (and verb tenses!) for lesson plans, reports, and other writing to describe teaching and learning activities that occurred, are presently occurring, or may occur in the future. One issue instructors have identified is that teacher candidates use imprecise, inaccurate, or informal verbs in their writing. For example, some verbs, such as teaches, are overused or are used to animate inanimate objects (for example, the curriculum, see below) and others set an inappropriate tone, such as forces. Some verbs are inaccurate or informal, such as grab. In addition to choosing the correct verb to describe the action, teacher candidates sometimes choose awkward, inactive, or improper conjugations of the verbs they include in their writing. In the current section, we begin by identifying some commonly misused or imprecise verbs in educational settings and offer some suggestions for more precise and effective word choices. Next, we provide some information about verb tenses. Tips for ensuring tense agreement in sentences are also offered in Part Two under the clausal constructions and agreements section. ● Verbs Used in Educational Settings - What does what you say actually mean? ○ Teaches (overused and non-specific) ■ Teaches (The teacher teaches students to…): This word is often overused; consider the type of teaching. For example, facilitates is suitable for student-directed activities, demonstrates is suitable for teacher-directed activities, or there may be other verbs that are more specific to the activity. You may find some useful verbs that describe actions and activities teachers and students do in the upcoming discussion about Bloom’s Taxonomy. ■ Also consider that specific learner outcomes (and the curriculum itself) are inanimate and do not teach students (i.e., “This outcome teaches students to read with appropriate use of voice”). Instead, teachers teach students the content or skills required by the outcomes. More appropriate wording would be “The outcome requires that students learn to read with appropriate use of voice. In order to meet the objective, the teacher will (or the student will)...”. ○ Forces (implies violence) ■ “Learning about social justice forces students to think about their own lives.” Consider alternate wording such as inspires, encourages, or challenges depending on the tone you want to set for the sentence. Also, instead of think about, you may wish to use evaluate, consider, reflect on, etc. It is vitally important that you consider the tone or actions implied by the words you use; consider that we do not use force as a teaching methodology! Short of brainwashing, you cannot force a child to think about something. ○ Grab or Get Out (very informal) �Academic Writing 12 ■ “Ask students to grab the stuff from the shelves.” Unfortunately, this vague and non-specific wording frequently appears in oral directions in class and in teacher candidates’ lesson plans. Instead, consider using collect, gather, retrieve, or even bring out for this direction. As a side note, instead of saying stuff, be specific about single items (i.e., their notebooks) or mixed items (i.e., the materials for their projects) in order to avoid confusion. ○ Hitting Outcomes (informal, “hitting” implies violence) ■ A common way teacher candidates use to discuss their lesson plans and the curricular fit of their activities is to say something like, “This activity hits outcomes 1.1 and 1.2 in the Language Arts Curriculum.” In education, teaching activities address or align with the expectations for specific learning outcomes. Teachers hope that students meet or successfully learn (or perform) the content (or skills) outlined in the specified outcomes. ● Bloom’s Taxonomy, named for Benjamin Bloom, was developed in the middle of the twentieth century to categorize and communicate the levels of cognitive skill required for educational tasks. Although not originally designed for younger students, the taxonomy is widely used today to ensure that instructional tasks are balanced and challenge students to think on more advanced levels. There are actually a number of taxonomies that fall under the title of Bloom’s Taxonomy. Pages 56 and 57 in volume one of A Guide to Effective Literacy Instruction (Ministry of Education, 2006) include “the original” taxonomy (Bloom & Kathwold, 1956) as well as a revised edition called A Taxonomy for Learning, Teaching, and Assessing (Anderson & Krathwohl, 2001). The “original” shown on page 56 included the levels remember, understand, apply, analyse, evaluate, and create. The revised version on page 57 changed the focus slightly to categorize types of knowledge and processes, rather than thinking skills, in order to reflect the reality that most academic tasks require learners to use a variety of cognitive processes and types of knowledge. A more well-known version of Bloom’s Taxonomy uses slightly different wording. Here is a helpful chart that Rosemary uses with her students: �Academic Writing 13 ● Verb Constructions Help Set the Tone ○ The verbs you select help set the voice and establish the tone for your writing. The APA Manual (American Psychological Association, 2010) encourages writers to use the active voice when writing. Active voice construction looks like: “The subject performed the action”. In the previous sentence, the emphasis is placed on the subject. Passive voice construction looks like: “The action was being performed by the subject”. In the previous sentence, the emphasis is placed on the actions performed. As you can see, active constructions are more direct; however they are also more clear and concise. Note that although active voice is preferred for the purposes of clarity and conciseness, the APA Manual states, “The passive voice is acceptable in expository writing and when you want to focus on the object or recipient of the action rather than on the actor” (p. 77). In practice, writers frequently use both active and passive voice in their writing, however, we encourage you to be mindful of how voice plays an important role in establishing the tone of your piece. ○ In addition to use of the active voice, another strategy you may use to add conciseness to your writing is to avoid verb tense conjugations that result in “ing” verbs, at least, as much as possible. An excellent chart found on Edufind (http://www.edufind.com/english-grammar/verbs/) shows the names and gives examples of active tense conjugations in English. When a writer strings together multiple verbs that end in “ing”, the result sounds less direct and less sophisticated. We are not suggesting that you eliminate the “ing” based conjugations altogether, but rather that you consider whether other conjugations may be more appropriate. Consider, for example, the difference between “The students have been practicing their speeches all day” (present tense continuous) and “The students have practiced their speeches all day” (present perfect tense). The present perfect tense example is much more concise and direct. Another tense frequently used in education , particularly for lesson plans, is future continuous tense. For example, “Students will be completing their charts and then they will be writing their results section and drawing a diagram” (future continuous tense). Note that “drawing” is underlined because the “will be” has been omitted, but maintains parallel structure with the preceding clause (then they will be writing their results section, (will be) drawing a diagram). Simple future tense would be much more appropriate and less bulky. For example, you could either write “Students will complete their charts, then they will write their results section and draw a diagram” or even, “Students will complete their charts, write their results, (and) then draw a diagram”, which is much more concise for procedural writing that occurs in lesson plans. �Academic Writing 14 Part Two: Sentence-Level Syntax (Grammar) “Incorrect grammar and careless construction of sentences distract the reader, introduce ambiguity, and generally obstruct communication” (American Psychological Association, 2010, p. 77). Clarity should be the most important consideration when writing. Unfortunately, oral language tends to be haphazard because it occurs spontaneously. Speakers rarely make full sentences; they use conjunctions to create run-on sentences, add clauses out of order, and ignore agreements between tenses, singular and plural words, and clauses. Oral language is the basis for written language, yet writing is more polished and follows a series of organizational conventions intended to improve clarity and reduce ambiguity. The relationship between the words and phrases in a sentence that govern the meaning are part of syntax. In English, syntax is most heavily dependent upon the order of words. For example, “Andrew hit the ball” has a different meaning than “The ball hit Andrew”. The word grammar refers to the rules that have been developed to explain and teach English syntax. The two words are often used interchangeably, but they do not have the same meaning. Of the two, the word grammar is more widely used, even though it is technically incorrect. For example, the word grammar was used in the above quote from the APA Manual (American Psychological Association, 2010), although the word syntax would have been more proper. Likely, grammar was chosen over syntax because it is more widely understood. Creating Effective Sentences: Order of Clauses and Awkward Wording The most simple sentences have few words: a subject and a predicate containing a verb (i.e., He ate) or verb and object (i.e., He ate a banana). Simple sentences (subject-verb-object) that stand on their own are called independent clauses. Writers add other clauses to their independent clauses to add specificity and relay the context of the idea presented in the independent clause (for example, He ate is a complete sentence, but it does not provide context such as what he ate, when he ate it, where he was eating, or with whom he was eating, for example). The clauses that writers add to independent clauses in order to provide the specificity and context are rarely able to stand alone as complete sentences, and thus are called dependent clauses. Each dependent clause you add to your independent clause has the potential to add clarity, however, it also has the potential to introduce confusion, especially if you are careless in the order of clauses. Different types of dependent clauses have different names such as prepositional phrases (begin with a preposition), adverbs and adverbial phrases (describe or qualify the verb), adjectives and adjectival phrases (describe or qualify the noun), etc., which we will not discuss here, except to remind you that your clausal structures should be parallel, as described later in Part Three. Here are some examples based on those from the APA Manual (American Psychological Association, 2010, p. 81) that, instead, use educational situations to demonstrate ambiguities that may arise from careless ordering of clauses in a sentence. �Academic Writing 15 ● Unclear whether the subject or object performed the action: For example, “The teacher assessed the students using running records.” When worded this way, it is unclear whether the teacher used the running records to assess students, or whether the teacher was assessing students who were using running records. Better wording would be “The teacher used running records to assess the students.” Although students do not usually use running records, a similar example showing the other proper construction is “The teacher assessed the students who were reading.” ● Incorrect use of qualifiers and modifiers such as only: The APA Manual (American Psychological Association, 2010) suggests that modifiers such as only be placed next to the word or phrase they modify. Consider the difference in meaning between these sentences: “The children only provided a partial explanation for the fight” and “The children provided only a partial explanation for the fight”. In the first example, the only thing that the children did was to provide a partial answer (i.e., they did nothing else, only provided). A more accurate message would be that the explanation was only a partial explanation. ● Incorrect use of passive verb constructions: For example, “The students were tested using this instrument”. In this passive voice construction, it is unclear who used the instrument. A better construction would be “Using this instrument, I tested the students.” Special: Prepositional Phrases According to dictionary.com, prepositions are “any member of a class of words found in many languages that are used before nouns, pronouns, or other substantives to form phrases functioning as modifiers of verbs, nouns, or adjectives, and that typically express a spatial, temporal, or other relationship” (2016, n.p.). Prepositions are very useful words; they are used to introduce phrases that add specificity to or define the relationships between nouns and verbs. The most commonly used preposition is to, though other examples include in, on, by, since, over, under, around, beside, and through. The order of clauses in a sentence, and particularly of prepositional phrases, is important to understanding the meaning of the sentence. In oral language, we often tack clauses on to sentences without regard for their order. This practice, when transferred to writing, causes ambiguity. When adding prepositional phrases to nouns or verbs, place the clauses as close as possible to the nouns and verbs they modify. When multiple phrases are used, reread the order of phrases to ensure that the meaning is clear. A special rule for prepositional phrases is that sentences (or major clauses) should not end with a preposition “left hanging” without finishing the clause by including the object to which it refers. For example, “He said he was going to go to the store” where “the store” relates where he is going. Note, in the first sentence of the current paragraph, we used the wording “to which it refers” rather than “...without finishing the clause by including the object that it refers to”; this is one strategy you can use to reduce the use of hanging prepositions at the end of clauses. Another strategy is to choose alternate wording. For example, in the previous paragraph, our use of the phrase “tack clauses on / to sentences” would better be worded as “add clauses / to �Academic Writing 16 sentences”). Typically, when teacher candidates conclude sentences awkwardly with prepositions, there is actually a better, more succinct or specific verb that could have been used instead! Primary culprits are phrases such as “think about” “reflect on”, or “go to”. For example, the following is incorrect because a major phrase ends with a preposition that is not followed by a noun: “They will use the information I asked them to think about yesterday”. Another example is: “They will go to the website I asked them to go to,” where the first instance of “go to” is used correctly because a noun phrase (i.e., the website) follows immediately and the second is used incorrectly because no noun phrase follows immediately. In the current example, visit or access would be more suitable verbs. Creating Effective Sentences: Clauses Must Agree An effective sentence contains a careful balance of agreements between the clauses. The verb tenses must agree. The pronouns must agree with the nouns they represent. Consistency between singular and plural nouns and verbs and between perspectives is vital. Oral language is far less careful than written language about agreements. However, writing is both confusing and ambiguous when the clauses do not agree. Tense Agreement When writing, it is important to maintain a consistent tense throughout the piece. Often, the choice of tense depends on the task. For example, when reporting actions that occurred in the past or citing work other authors have published, be consistent with past tenses. When completing a lesson plan, the best practice is to use future tenses, like the simple future tense described in Part 1. Pronoun Agreement Pronouns provide a convenient method to simplify the wording of sentences and make them less repetitive. Unfortunately, pronouns can also introduce ambiguity into sentences if multiple pronouns are used and it is unclear to which noun each refers. When introducing a pronoun, make sure that you first introduce the noun to which the pronoun refers, with the exception of the personal pronouns such as I and we, as well as the second person pronouns such as you, if the audience is known to you. The chart below has been created to demonstrate the difference between the various pronouns used to replace nouns in English. The first column shows the form used in the subject of a sentence (the person or thing that performs the action). The second column shows the form used in the predicate of the sentence when a person or thing is acted upon by the subject. The third column contains the pronoun forms used to show possession of an object and the fourth column contains the pronoun forms used to describe or qualify the object that is possessed (i.e., That book is mine). Pronouns, particularly first person pronouns, are often used incorrectly. Below, we explain how and when each form of pronoun is used as well as rules that govern more complex usages. �Academic Writing 17 Subject Form Predicate Form Possessive Form An Object Possessed Is I me, myself my mine you you, yourself (s), yourselves (p) your yours he him, himself his his she her, herself her hers we us, ourselves our ours they them, themselves their theirs it it, itself its its In the past it was common to default to the male form (i.e., he) when referring to mixed groups or to groups where the composition was unknown or ambiguous. In response to concerns about the imbalance, some publications began to use the female form (i.e., she) or to alternate between male and female forms within the same work. The APA Manual (American Psychological Association, 2010) guidelines on the use of pronouns recommend using the least ambiguous pronoun. If the subject is obviously male or female or identifies as male or female, use the appropriate pronouns for male or female. Avoid overly gendered language (i.e., police officer, not policeman) whenever possible. As mentioned in Part 1, to avoid gendered language when referring to an ambiguous subject, some authors default to plural pronouns such as them and their when referring to an individual when that individual’s gender is not known and this usage is incorrect. To avoid this imbalance, it is often easier to revise the sentence to be consistently plural (i.e., “The teacher asked each student to bring out their book” is incorrect, but “The teacher asked the students to bring out their books” is correct) or to avoid the pronoun altogether (pp. 73-74). Note that non-gendered versions of individual pronouns to replace he and her exist and are used by some. Although these pronouns are not included here, the rules for nongendered pronouns would follow similar rules to their gendered versions. For your reference, Dr. Socha has provided three resources for the use of non-gendered pronouns: http://www.citylab.com/navigator/2015/09/ze-or-they-a-guide-to-using-gender-neutralpronouns/407167/; https://uwm.edu/lgbtrc/support/gender-pronouns/; and https://apps.carleton.edu/student/orgs/saga/pronouns/. ● Using Pronouns in the Subject of a Sentence ○ When used in the subject of a sentence, as a phrase in the subject, or as the primary actor in the situation, the proper form to use is I, you, he, she, we, they, or it. For example, “They enjoyed eating the ice cream cones when they were at the zoo.” In the preceding sentence, care has been taken to balance both clauses (i.e., �Academic Writing 18 “They enjoyed eating the ice cream cones” and “they were at the zoo”) that occur on both sides of the when. Both used the same type of pronoun and both used verbs that were in similar past tenses. ○ When combining pronouns to make more sophisticated subjects, the order of pronouns is important. When determining which verb to use after a subject joined with a conjunction, one trick is to remove the “and ___” part, and read the sentence again to determine which verb conjugation to use. Usually this doesn’t make a large difference, but the same trick applies when nouns or phrases are used in the subject as well. For example, “The girls and I are going to the park today”. ■ When combining first and second or third person pronouns in the subject, always use the personal pronoun I and put the other person first (i.e., “You and I”, “She and I”). Never use me in the subject! “Me and you” and “Me and him”, though commonly used, are incorrect at the beginning of the sentence; so, too, are “Me and my sister” or “Me and Brady” when used in the subject. ■ When combining second and third person or other pronouns in the subject, place the second person pronoun first and ensure you are parallel in your use of subject pronouns (i.e., “You and she”, “You and they”, “You and Barb”, “You and your dog”). Mixed pronoun types such as “You and her”, “You and him”, or “You and them”, though common, are incorrect. ● Using Pronouns as the Object in the Predicate of a Sentence ○ When used in the predicate of a sentence or as a phrase in the predicate, the proper form to use is me, you, him, her, us, them, or it (i.e., “Peter gave the book to her”). Only if the subject is performing the action upon itself, should myself, yourself, yourselves (if audience includes more than one person), himself, herself, ourselves, themselves, or itself be used (i.e., “Sally took the book for herself” or “I hit myself in the shin”). A caution: hisself , ourself, theirself, and themself, etc., are incorrect forms of object pronouns. ○ When using pronouns in the predicate as objects of verbs, the order of pronouns is also important. Similar rules to subject pronouns are used when determining the order of pronouns in the subject. ■ When combining first and second or third person pronouns in the predicate, always use the personal pronoun me and put the other person first (i.e., “you and me” though us is better, “her and me” though us is better). Never use I in the predicate! For example, “She goes to school with you and I” is incorrect. Also incorrect are: “Me and my sister” or “Me and Brady”. Remember, the other person or pronoun goes first, whether in the subject or predicate. �Academic Writing 19 ■ When combining second and third person or other pronouns in the subject, place the second person pronoun first and ensure you are parallel in your use of subject pronouns (i.e., “you and her”, “you and them”, “you and Sam”, “you and your cat”). Mixed pronoun types such as “you and I” or “you and she”, though common, are incorrect. For example, “Jeanette gave the prize to you and me” is correct, rather than “to you and I”. If in doubt, say the sentence twice - once with each piece of the compound object - such as “Jeanette gave the prize to you” and “Jeanette gave the prize to me”. ● Using Pronouns to Show Possession ○ When an object or objects are owned and a pronoun is used, the proper form is my ________, your ________, his ________, her ________, our ________, their ________, or its ________. When referring to the object or objects that are owned, the proper form is mine, yours, his, hers, ours, theirs, or its. For example, “That book is mine.” ■ When combining first and second or third person pronouns in the predicate, always use the personal pronoun me and put the other person first (i.e., “your and my” though our is better, “hers and mine” though ours is better). Also incorrect are: “Mine and and my sister’s aunt” (incorrect use of my/mine and incorrect order) or “Me and Brady’s team”. More correct would be: “My sister and my aunt” and “Brady and my team”, though our would be more preferred, if possible. ■ When combining second and third person or other pronouns in the subject, place the second person pronoun first and ensure you are parallel in your use of subject pronouns (i.e., “your and her”, “yours and theirs”, “your and Sam’s”. Singular-Plural Agreement Singular-plural agreement has been addressed previously in various places within the module, particularly in Part 1 and 2, ● In Part 1 where we described words that are often misused: “The distinction between how many students own each project is important. If there will be only one project for all the students in the class, then use singular.” In this example, we highlighted the need to distinguish between single or multiple objects. ● In Part 2 where we described verb agreements between plural and singular nouns and pronouns. ● In Part 2 where we described agreements between plural and singular pronouns. ● In Part 3 (yet to come) where we will discuss plural vs possessive markers in the context of spelling. �Academic Writing 20 These four agreement types reflect the majority of plural-singular agreement errors made by teacher candidates. In order to decrease repetitiveness, we will not repeat the content here, except to say that as a writer, it is important to reduce ambiguity by being both specific and consistent with the use of singular or plural nouns, pronouns, verbs, and possessives in your writing. Perspective Agreement (First, Second, and Third Person) In English, there are three different perspectives (or voices) that a writer can assume: first person, second person, and third person. Each perspective has different uses, though their uses may be mixed within a piece dependent upon the type of writing task. Some perspectives may be inappropriate for certain tasks. If you are in doubt as to whether a certain perspective is appropriate or inappropriate for your writing task, either default to the more formal perspectives or consult your instructor. In writing undertaken from a first person perspective, the writer either places him or herself within the work as narrator, describes the action with him or herself as part of it, or, in the case of a story, assumes the identity of a character. From a literary perspective, first person perspective makes the story more personal and relatable or persuasive. In the professional program, first person perspective is always appropriate for sharing thoughts and reflections. Additionally, the APA Manual (American Psychological Association, 2010) also allows the use of first person perspective (i.e., through the use of either I or we) within essays or articles, particularly as a way of reducing ambiguity when referring to oneself in third person (i.e., “The researchers” or “The teachers”). In writing undertaken from a second person perspective, the author speaks to the audience directly and involves the audience in the piece (i.e., through the use of you). The audience may be a single person or multiple people; in English, both types use the word you. Second person perspective is often mixed with first person, when relating an interactive narrative or description to an audience (i.e., “You should have seen the size of the fish we caught yesterday!”) or either implied or present when giving instructions in an imperative sentence (i.e., for GPS: “Turn right, then proceed for one kilometre. Your destination is on the left)”. Although it makes writing sound more personable (which is why we chose to use it for this module), second person perspective is very informal. Although its use may be appropriate for some essays, it definitely would not be appropriate for a formal report, for example. In writing undertaken from a third person perspective, the author excludes him or herself, as well as the audience, from involvement in the action (i.e., through the exclusive use of he, she, or it). In literary writing, third person perspectives allow the author to show multiple perspectives or to show the action taking place in a greater scale than first person would allow. Third person perspective is usually considered to be more objective, but can also sound cold or distant. It will be the default for many of your writing tasks in the professional program, though not all. It is particularly useful for describing action that occurred, such as in the excerpts from the diagnostic reports that were included in the two previous quizzes for tense and pronoun agreements. Sometimes, such as in the second quiz, the writer may choose to describe the action more �Academic Writing 21 generally using third person, then interject personal opinions or insights using first person, and this practice would be acceptable, depending on the writer’s intent and the purpose of the piece. �Academic Writing 22 Parallel Clausal Structure The final reminder we will give you regarding sentences is to ensure clauses used around conjunctions (and, but, and or) have parallel structures. Parallel structure means that the relationship and order between nouns, verbs, adjectives, etc., is the same in each clause and that, as we have covered in previous sections, you are consistent in your use of tenses, pronouns, and plural or singular forms of nouns, pronouns, and verbs. Another part of parallel structure includes using the same conjugations for verbs. An example of an error is: “I really like to hike, go biking, and play soccer in the summer”. Parallel structure would assist in ensuring that all the verbs were conjugated the same, because otherwise the sentence would sound awkward. The correct, and parallel, structure would be: “I really like to hike, bike, and play soccer in the summer” or “I really like hiking, biking, and playing soccer in the summer,” though the “ing” conjugations are more awkward. Appropriate and parallel use of clausal structure makes your writing much easier to read, ensures that the audience understands your message without ambiguity, and reduces reader fatigue. It is very easy to neglect sentence structure when you are constantly working back and forth revising your ideas within your written piece. Once you have finished writing, read your work over thoroughly twice. First, read on a sentence-by-sentence and ensure that all clauses within the sentence work well and are parallel. Make sure that each sentence stands on its own. (One strategy is to read the sentences in reverse order, starting at the end of the paper). On the second reading, ensure your sentences flow smoothly and transition well. �Academic Writing 23 Part Three: Conventions of Written Language When you are writing, one of the last things you will do is to edit your work to ensure that your use of conventions (spelling, capitalization, and punctuation) is correct. Recall from the stages of the writing cycle outlined in the introduction that final editing usually occurs after ideas have been revised. Spelling It is very disappointing and distracting to read written work when words are misspelled. In an age of word processors and spell checking features, there is little excuse to submit work that contains spelling errors. Sometimes, work done in class will have spelling errors, particularly visual displays on chart paper. It is important to ensure that you proofread all written work prior to submitting it, whether typed or handwritten. Here are some examples of things that the spell checking feature will not catch: ● The addition or omission of one letter that changes the word completely: For example, assess vs asses, rationale vs rational, these vs theses, or prediction vs predication. ● Homonyms: As previously discussed; there vs their, to vs too vs two, lets vs let’s, etc. ● American vs Canadian spelling conventions: Set the dictionary on your spell checker to Canadian or UK spelling. Be consistent in your use of Canadian spelling (except if you are quoting another work that uses American spelling). For example, practise vs practice, favourite vs favorite, cheque vs check, metre (a unit of measurement) vs meter (something with which you measure), etc. ● Many domain- or subject-specific vocabulary and names such as authors’ names in citations will not be known to your spell checking feature. ● Abbreviations and contractions: In most formal writing, you would avoid using contractions and unnecessary or confusing abbreviations (especially without first introducing the full term). Instructors’ requirements for abbreviations and contractions will vary, so you should consult with your instructor. ● The most common misuse of spelling conventions that instructors encounter relates to the use of apostrophes. This error is common in social media and popular culture and occurs frequently in teacher candidates’ writing as well. Spell checking functions may not catch this error, though grammar checking functions may (or may suggest the wrong one)! Thus, it is important to proofread your work to ensure you have used plural and possessive markers properly. ○ In English, the plural markers for nouns are “s” and “es”. For example, teaches, apples, boys, girls, books, etc. In most present tense conjugations, in order to match a verb to plural noun, you must remove the “s” (i.e., An apple falls vs apples fall; Bill reads vs Bill and Janice read or the students read) unless using certain pronouns (i.e., I play, you play, he plays, she plays, they play, we play, everyone plays, all of them play). �Academic Writing 24 ○ The marker used to show possession is the apostrophe and “s”, either ’s or s’. For example, “This is Sienna’s book.” An exception to the use of apostrophes to show possession is for the pronouns such as my, your, his, her, its, their, and our, which do not use apostrophes. Remember that in Part 1, we explained the difference between its and it’s. ■ When the writer discusses a singular subject that possesses a singular or plural object, it is correct to add ’s to the subject noun. For example, “The dog’s treat” or “the dog’s treats” if the dog has multiple treats. The same rule applies for proper names. For example, “Eden’s toy car” or “Eden’s toy cars” if Eden owns more than one toy car. ● An exception where s’ appears is when the subject noun is singular but ends with an “s”, such as class or James. Although it is common to, rather awkwardly, pronounce these cases as “The class-ez” and “James-ez”, do not write class’s or James’s. If referring to a single class, write class’ (such as in “The class’ teacher was away today”) or James’ (such as “Sara accidently took James’ book home”). ■ When the writer discusses a simple plural subject that possesses a singular or plural object, it is correct to add s’ to the subject noun. One trick for remembering this rule is that if the word has a plural marker (s or es) already, do not separate the marker from the base with an apostrophe such as church’es, instead, churches’ is correct. Here are some examples of when s’ is appropriate: “the churches’ new pastor” (if two or more churches share a pastor), “the libraries’ shared librarian” (if two or more libraries share a librarian), or “the dogs’ treats” (if there are many treats belonging to a crowd of dogs). ● An exception where subjects may seem plural, but are in fact not, is when descriptors are used to describe a group of subjects such as everybody (i.e., everybody’s mom) or crowd (i.e., All the students gathered at the school. The crowd’s mood was generally happy). ● If a word is already plural without an “s”, such as children or geese, then use ’s (i.e., children’s books or geese’s feathers). ● If the subject is more complex, such as when naming the two owners, the apostrophe is placed on the last noun only, along with the appropriate singular or plural possessive marker (i.e., Bill and Ted’s Excellent Adventure). ■ There are some, but very few, exceptions where an apostrophe may be used to show plural. These exceptions include certain abbreviations such as CD’s, DVD’s, and the 1990’s, though these examples are equally �Academic Writing 25 correct without the apostrophe and it may avoid confusion to remove it altogether. Capitalization Capitalization should be used sparingly. In the context of academic writing, it is used to mark the beginning of a sentence, a proper name, or a title of a complete work such as a book title or article title. (Titles are usually placed in italics as well). Titles of songs or other artistic works should also be capitalized. The convention is to use quotation marks, but italics are also acceptable. Abbreviations are usually capitalized. In regards to headings and subheadings in your own written work, capitalization rules vary according to the level of heading. Consult page 62 of the APA Manual (American Psychological Association, 2010) if you are using multi-level headings in your work. One place where capitalization varies from the expected is in the titles of books, articles, and chapters included as part of a bibliography. In a bibliography, only the first word in article, book, and chapter titles is capitalized. Proper names are also capitalized in bibliographies such as: The true confessions of Charlotte Doyle. Words that follow a colon or dash should also be capitalized in a bibliography, such as in There and back again: A hobbit’s tale. The rules for capitalization in bibliographies are complex. We suggest that you consult the rules and examples in the manual (or on the Purdue site) whenever you create a bibliography for your paper in order to ensure that your use of capitalization (and punctuation) is correct. Sentence-Level Punctuation The rules for punctuation in this section come from Chapter 4 of the APA Manual (American Psychological Association, 2010, pp. 87-95). Punctuation is related to written language and is the system developed to standardize how spoken words are organized on the page. Although punctuation is not spoken aloud when speaking, in writing (American Psychological Association, 2010): Punctuation establishes the cadence of a sentence, telling the reader where to pause (comma, semicolon, and colon), stop (period and question mark), or take a detour (dash, parentheses, and brackets). Punctuation of a sentence usually denotes a pause in thought; different kinds of punctuation indicate different kinds and lengths of pauses. (p. 87) As you are completing your assignments, one of the last things you should do is to read through and check that your punctuation is present and correct. Your very last step should be to read your work aloud. If your sentences sound awkward or confusing when read aloud, they will sound that way to your audience as well. Successful written language flows smoothly and maintains consistent tone and pace. It invites the reader to read it aloud. The next four subsections address end punctuation, commas, semicolons, and quotation marks because these are where the most issues occur in teacher candidates’ writing. The APA �Academic Writing 26 Manual contains additional guidelines and examples for dashes, parentheses, square brackets, and slashes, should you require them (pp. 87-96). End Punctuation: Periods, Question Marks, and Exclamation Marks According the APA Manual (American Psychological Association, 2010), punctuation marks are placed outside of and after parentheses but within quotation marks (if appropriate). The exception to this rule is in the case of block quotations (which exceed 42 words and are indented), where the period comes before the page numbers in parentheses and quotation marks are omitted. Also, APA style requires only a single space after end-of-sentence punctuation. Many students were taught to put all punctuation inside and to use two spaces, however these practices are incorrect in APA style. Commas Commas are used most frequently to separate words, clauses, and other phrases in lists. Commas tend to denote a pause, particularly a pause that allows the reader (or listener) to chunk information together to understand the relationship between the words, clauses, or other phrases. One way to tell whether commas are needed is to read the entire sentence aloud with no pauses between words and see whether it makes sense. 1. Use commas when three or more items (elements) are to be joined together with a conjunction (and, but, or or). Do not use a comma when there are only two words, clauses, or phrases to be joined. In APA format, a comma is placed between each element, including before and or or. Related to the use of commas for separating clauses, it is important to ensure that each clause has a parallel structure. For example, “Jenny ordered cans of pop, bags of chips, and boxes of cookies for her birthday party” (all clauses begin with plural nouns and similar phrasing) or “Jesse ran to school, opened his locker, and retrieved the homework he forgot on Friday” (all clauses begin with pasttense verbs). 2. Use commas to separate nonessential clauses (or interrupters!) that embellish a sentence but would not harm the grammatical acceptability or meaning of the sentence if removed. 3. Other uses of commas include for separating dates that include years (September 1, 2016, was the first day of class) and for separating years in parenthetical reference citations (Lovell-Johnston, 2016, p. 4). Semicolons A semicolon is used to separate two independent clauses (complete sentences) that are not joined by a conjunction (and, but, or) or to join elements in a series that contain commas within them. For example, “When they went to the cafeteria for lunch, Jason ordered fries, gravy, and a hamburger; Ian ordered soup and salad; and Jamie ordered the special”. �Academic Writing 27 Quotation Marks The main use of quotation marks is for dialogue or quoting source text. Always use double quotation marks, unless you are using a quotation within a quotation. For example, you may choose to cite this fictional quote from a fictional article: “An expression attributed to Shakespeare’s Juliet is ‘A rose by any other name’, though the expression means something quite different now” (Lovell-Johnston, 2016, p. 51). A secondary use for quotation marks (often overused) is to introduce a word of phrase for the purposes of irony, slang, or an invented expression. Use the quotation marks for the first instance, but not thereafter. Do not use quotation marks when citing letters, words, or phrases as linguistic examples. Instead, use italics. For example, “Joanna would benefit from learning the difference between to, too, and two.” Also italicize technical or key terms on their first use, rather than using quotation marks. For example, “Phonemic awareness is a term used to describe children’s ability to identify the sounds, called phonemes, in spoken words.” Do not use quotation marks for most expressions for which we would tend to use “finger quotes”, such as in the following example: The teacher “rewarded” the class. In this example, italics could be appropriate if the intended tone was ironic, however, punctuation would not be appropriate. �Academic Writing 28 Part Four: Types of Writing in the Professional Program One of the points we have attempted to make throughout the module has been that although word choice, syntax, and conventions are important, some of these are influenced by the types or genres of writing you undertake. For example, convention use is different in poetic writing than in a formal essay. The tone, pace, word choice, and syntax may be different, for example. In the current section, we introduce some of the many types of writing you may be asked to do in your coursework in the professional program. We explain the basic requirements and structures, as well as some advice to help you in your writing. It is important that you consult your assignment sheet (if one is provided) and rubric or assignment grading scheme. Email Required for: All Classes, Placement Email may seem straightforward in today’s society, but when you are using email to communicate in an academic or professional capacity, it is important to communicate with proper tone and content. The majority of the communication that occurs outside of class in the professional program occurs via email, so it is important to check your email at least once a day and check your spam filter frequently. Some advice for emails: ● At minimum, begin the first email in the chain with a proper salutation (Dear ____). Some instructors prefer to be known as Dr. ____ or Mr. or Ms. _____ by email, even when they allow the use of their first names in class. Avoid a sense of over-familiarity by using the more formal salutation first, until and unless your instructor indicates otherwise. Subsequent to the first email, you may choose to be less formal if the respondent is also less formal (i.e., Hi Joe), or you may remove the salutation altogether. However, “Hi Meridith” is generally preferable to “Dear Professor” or just “Professor”. Please avoid “Hey _____”. ● Communicate in full sentences, particularly in the first email of the chain. Provide context and state the purpose for what you are asking or communicating. Organize your ideas. Remember to be concise but clear. ● Proofread your emails before you send them! Smartphones make instant replies very easy, however autocorrect features may not provide correct words, especially for educational terminology. Essay Required for: All Classes An essay is the primary way for you to explain concepts and demonstrate your learning in academic settings. Writing an effective essay is more than just writing your stream-ofconsciousness about the topic. Essays are crafted; they are carefully planned, organized, and revised. The expectation in the professional program is that your essays will likely be the most polished pieces that you write. Some advice for essays: �Academic Writing 29 ● Consult your assignment sheet and rubric, if available, to ensure that you understand the type of essay and requirements for completion. There are many types of essays - some explain, some report, some reflect, some persuade, and some simply summarize. The type of essay required should influence your planning and word choice. ● Plan the format of your essay before you begin. Research (if applicable) and organize your ideas into the most effective order. Find specific links to course content, experiences, and/or other sources that support your arguments. ● An academic essay begins with an overall thesis or theme and description of the main points. Then, the main points are expanded in the middle sections. Usually each main point will have at least one paragraph associated with it where you will provide your supporting details or research. In longer essays, where you use more than one paragraph per main idea, consider subsection titles. Consult the APA Manual (American Psychological Association, 2010, p. 62) for rules regarding the format of section headings. Your concluding paragraph or section should summarize your main points and provide a decisive answer to the question or topic. ● Communicate in full sentences. Provide the purpose for what you are asking or communicating in your first paragraph. Organize your ideas. Remember to be concise but clear. ● Proofread your essays before you submit them! Read your essays aloud to make sure they make sense and flow. Have a friend proof read them if you wish to make sure the ideas make sense and the language is clear. Just… proofread. Lesson Plan Required for: All Curriculum and Instruction Classes, Placement Lesson plans are a form of procedural writing, meaning that you outline specific steps (procedures) required to complete the activity properly and successfully. Although some teacher candidates tend to describe teaching and learning tasks in general terms for their lesson plans, “Read the story to the students. Tell the students to write in their journals for the rest of the class period,” a strong lesson plan includes step-by-step and detailed description of each step for the task. Remember that as you complete lesson plans, you should first demonstrate the task then guide students to complete the task with supervision and directed feedback. (These two activities are what make up teaching)! Only after students have successfully done the task with assistance, then they should be given individual practice with more indirect teacher supervision. Thus, you would not just tell students to do a task; make a habit of showing them how to do it first. More advice for lesson plans: ● Maintain consistent tense use. Simple future tense is recommended. (i.e., Students will do this. The teacher will do that.”) Remember to avoid the “ing” verbs when possible (i.e., Students will read five pages during class is a better than Students will be reading five pages during class.) �Academic Writing 30 ● Use complete sentences, though it may be appropriate to use imperative sentences where the subject is implied (similar to the current sentence). However, remember to be consistent in perspective (i.e., “The teacher will read the first chapter to the students. Remember to use appropriate pacing and voice!” This example switches from third person “The teacher will...” to an imperative sentence in second person or first person perspective “(You should/I should) remember to...”). ● Always use the Lakehead University Lesson Plan template (Orillia) or an appropriate template in the Practicum Guide (Thunder Bay), unless instructed to do otherwise. Although the lesson plan template may seem bulky, the parts build on one another and include the types of information required to demonstrate proficient decision-making about teaching. For example, your chosen learning outcomes from the curriculum should directly link to your learning goals and success criteria (how will you determine whether and to what degree the students have learned the curricular outcome?) and to your assessment. All of your activities should involve demonstration or practice of your learning outcomes or lead to demonstration or practice of your outcomes. ● There are many examples of lesson plans throughout the chapters of the Guides to Effective Instruction (Ministry of Education and Training, 2003, 2005, 2006). Feel free to adapt ideas from these lesson plans. Another beneficial practice is to review the plans to see how the authors break tasks into instructional steps and the words they use to talk about the different tasks involved in teaching. ● One important tip for lesson plans is to imagine that you are writing the plan so that someone else could administer it exactly the same way that you would. Thus, you should not make assumptions or exclude information needed to successfully implement the plan exactly as you would do it. Err on the side of too much information, rather than too little. Philosophy of Teaching (Or, of Anything Else) Required for: Religion, Some job applications or interviews The purpose of a Philosophy of Teaching Statement is to introduce yourself to the instructor or potential employer by outlining your beliefs and practices as a teacher (or teacher candidate). There are many different methods and styles of teaching and, through a philosophy statement, the instructor or employer learns about your values and practices and whether these align with the style of teaching they prefer for their schools and the atmosphere they are trying to maintain. More advice for philosophy statements: ● Be honest. Don’t pretend to be someone you aren’t or to think something that you don’t. It’s perfectly acceptable to talk about areas of growth for yourself as a teacher. Remember that, in an interview, you will likely be asked to expand on what you have written. ● Be sincere and reflective. Think about the core beliefs you hold as a teacher and how these influence the way you approach teaching and learning. ● Keep on topic and support your points with evidence from your experiences and knowledge. If your philosophy statement is for a specific school or school board, do some �Academic Writing 31 research (usually on their website) about their mission and value statements and address the key points in your philosophy statement, citing examples from your experiences. ● Be positive. Don’t talk about what you “don’t do” or “don’t believe in.” Instead, discuss what you do and what you believe. One of the worst things you can do in a philosophy statement (or interview) is to criticize other teachers with whom you worked in the past. Rationale or Critique Required for: Language Arts, Math, Other curriculum and instruction classes A rationale requires that you explain your reasoning (or rationale) for a decision you have made. Similarly, a critique requires that you make a judgement and then explain it. As teachers, we are often required to provide our justification for our decisions about what we have done (or will do in the future) as well as for our judgements about things we read or experience. Although personal interests, preferences, and experiences are factors that influence teachers’ decisions; it is far more important to demonstrate and explain how decisions align with the curriculum, child development, and other factors such as school or district policies. A successful rationale or critique directly links to and cites the sources used to make the decision as well as explains why and how they apply. In the context of the professional program, you may be asked to synthesize your understanding of any or all of the following in the form of a rationale or critique: the curriculum area (i.e., language arts), the curriculum for a specific grade and strand (i.e., media literacy for grade four), other curriculum areas (i.e., topics addressed in the Social Studies curriculum), class readings, research on child development, and/or other external readings or research. Advice for rationales and critiques: ● Proofread! Often, we see it spelled as rational, not rationale. Both of these are real words, so the spell checker will not catch the error. ● Summarize or directly quote information from your sources and explain how or why the information fits your context. Integrate and synthesize information sources, rather than drawing haphazardly from them. Your rationale or critique should flow and should demonstrate your understanding of the ideas, rather than simply stringing together a series of quotations. ● Speaking about your own preferences or interests is acceptable practice, but you should also provide justifications based on the curriculum, research, and your course readings. Reflection Required for: Every class and lesson plan Superior teachers are reflective teachers who critically examine their experiences in the context of their decisions, attitudes, beliefs, and practices. Reflective teachers are able to justify their thinking and how it aligns with the curriculum, local and provincial policies, and research on effective teaching practices. More advice for reflections: �Academic Writing 32 ● If a specific topic or question is suggested, ensure that you answer it. If you are simply asked to “reflect”, then the purpose is for you to evaluate and describe what you have done and your decision-making process, what you have watched, etc. ● Informal tone or narrative is acceptable in most cases, particularly for in-class reflections. For reflections attached to assignments, a more formal tone might be appropriate. ● An important aspect of reflections is relevance. You may include and analyze personal examples, particularly from your placement or experiences with children, but make sure they are relevant to the topic and that you thoroughly explain why they are relevant. ● Use reflections attached to assignments to showcase your thinking as a teacher. Include links that show how you have synthesized relevant course readings and disciplinary knowledge. Superior reflections are not simply afterthoughts; they add meaning and context to the assignments and highlight your growth as a teacher. ● Reflections are intended to move beyond a restatement of the experience. Lesson plan reflections should consider both the learner and the teacher. Reflections are personal and professional. Honest consideration of recognized strengths and areas for future improvement or growth (communication, planning, differentiation, implementation, classroom organization, management, assessment) is essential. Questions are provided on the Lesson Plan template to assist with building reflections. Report (Formal) Required for: Language Arts, other classes A formal report requires that you adopt the role of an expert and explain a concept or make recommendations (depending on the type of report). Writing an effective report requires careful crafting. You should provide rationale or justification for each point you make. Your instructor will have very specific requirements laid out for a formal report, including requirements for content and structure. Some advice for reports: ● Consult your assignment sheet and rubric carefully to ensure that you include each part that is required. ● Provide evidence and support (from your research, readings, etc.) for each point or evaluation you make. ● Plan the format of your report before you begin. Organize your ideas into the most effective order and find examples or quotations that support each point made. Begin with the most important point you want to make. Find specific links to course content, experiences, or other sources that support your arguments. ● Reports will often contain subsections. Each subsection should have an introduction. Consult the APA Manual (American Psychological Association, 2010, p. 62) for rules regarding the format of section headings. Your concluding paragraph or section in your essay should sum up your main points and provide a decisive answer for the question or topic. �Academic Writing 33 ● Word choice is extremely important in a report. For example, Meridith asks students to write diagnostic reports about oral language, reading, and writing. She expects that teacher candidates integrate the correct vocabulary learned in class such as phoneme instead of sound; decoding, fluency, pace, prosody, or comprehension as appropriate instead of reading; and letter orientation, spelling, etc., instead of writing. ● Reports are usually written in a third person, professional tone. In order to sound confident and professional, consider removing the following phrases “I feel”, “I think”, “I believe”, “needs to”, and “was able to”. For example, instead of “Dakota was able to read the passage fluently”, consider “Dakota read the passage fluently”. Related to this last point, “was not able to” or “could not” are very subjective evaluative statements, and are also to be avoided in reports. Specifically, with only a single assessment, it is impossible to judge whether the child was unable to do the activity at all or only as it was presented. It could also be the case that the child chose not to do the activity. Instead, consider “Dakota did not spell any of the two syllable words correctly.” Alternately, “Dakota seemed to have difficulty spelling words with two syllables from the list provided” would be adequate, though somewhat awkward with the “ing” conjugation. ● Proofread your report before you submit it! Read your report aloud to make sure it makes sense. Have a friend proof read it if you wish to make sure the ideas make sense and the language is clear and professional. Summary or Abstract Required for: Many classes A summary (or the special kind of summary called an abstract) is a form of writing in which the author provides the main or pertinent points of another, longer written work. In a summary, you should ensure that the major points or ideas the other work included are addressed, including major conclusions drawn. In most cases, you would paraphrase rather than copy the exact wording, unless the specific wording is vital to the point being made and cannot be made another way. If you are summarizing or paraphrasing from another text, you must provide correct citations using APA style or another style that your instructor requests. An abstract is a special summary of a research report or essay. In proper abstract, you would summarize each section of the report or essay in a way that is clear and allows your reader to understand the key points. Abstracts are usually under 120 words in length, but requirements vary. The purpose is to provide the key points and encourage the reader to read the work in its entirety. Advice for summaries and abstracts: ● Be objective. Usually, it is expected that you would relate the key points without comment or judgement. Sometimes, you will also be asked to evaluate, assess, or otherwise critique the merits of the piece you are summarizing. In this case, you would summarize first then provide your evaluation second in the form of a critique (above). ● Address each of the major parts or ideas in order, but be concise. Usually a summary takes the form of a single paragraph, though not always. �Academic Writing 34 ● Concise word choice is extremely important for an abstract. If you must include specific technical terms used in the report or essay, explain them in the abstract as well. Do not substitute other words for specific technical terms. ● Abstracts and summaries are often written in the third person. �Academic Writing 35 �Academic Writing 36 References American Psychological Association. (2010). Publication manual of the American Psychological Association (6th ed.). Washington, DC: Author. Bainbridge, J., & Hayden, R., (2013). Constructing meaning: Teaching the language arts K-8 (5th ed.). Toronto, ON: Nelson. Dictionary.com. (n.d.). Preposition [online], retrieved from http://www.dictionary.com/browse/preposition?s=t. Edufind. (n.d.). Verbs [online], retrieved from http://www.edufind.com/english-grammar/verbs/. Ministry of Education and Training. (2003). A guide to effective instruction in reading: Kindergarten to grade 3. Toronto, ON: Queen’s Printer. Ministry of Education and Training. (2005). A guide to effective instruction in writing: Kindergarten to grade 3. Toronto, ON: Queen’s Printer. Ministry of Education and Training. (2006). A guide to effective literacy instruction grades 4-6. (7 vol.). Toronto, ON: Queen’s Printer. The Oatmeal. (n.d.). Ten words you need to stop misspelling [online], retrieved from http://theoatmeal.com/comics/misspelling. Tompkins, G. (2015). Literacy in the early grades (4th ed.). Boston, MA: Pearson Education, Inc. � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Style Guide Hyperlink A link, or reference, to another resource on the Internet. URL <a href="https://docs.google.com/document/d/1ZWD946Ep-DJrVkzzMaVygjNnboP2Bgrs7jKru88RQ04/edit?usp=sharing" title="Basics of Academic Writing for Education Students" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer">Basics of Academic Writing for Education Students</a> Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource The Basics of Academic Writing for Education Students Subject The topic of the resource EDUC academic writing EDUC style guide https://writingresources.lakeheadu.ca/files/original/298e26cacc2b53b3a8d179cb9384d157.pdf 2174d0c1a8fe03889cb24d4a69338156 PDF Text Text Running head: VARYING DEFINITIONS OF ONLINE COMMUNICATION 1 Green text boxes contain explanations of APA style guidelines. The title should summarize the paper’s main idea and identify the variables under discussion and the relationship between them. Blue boxes contain directions for writing and citing in APA style. Varying Definitions of Online Communication and Their Effects on Relationship Research The title should be centered on the page, typed in 12point Times New Roman Font. It should not be bolded, underlined, or italicized. Elizabeth L. Angeli The author’s name and institution should be doublespaced and centered. State University Author Note Elizabeth L. Angeli, Department of Psychology, State University. Elizabeth Angeli is now at Department of English, Purdue University. This research was supported in part by a grant from the Sample Grant Program. Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Elizabeth Angeli, Department of English, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 55555. Contact: author@boiler.edu The author note should appear on printed articles and identifies each author’s department and institution affiliation and any changes in affiliation, contains acknowledgements and any financial support received, and provides contact information. For more information, see the APA manual, 2.03, page 24-25. Note: An author note is optional for students writing class papers, theses, and dissertations.. An author note should appear as follows: First paragraph: Complete departmental and institutional affiliation Second paragraph: Changes in affiliation (if any) Third paragraph: Acknowledgments, funding sources, special circumstances Fourth paragraph: Contact information (mailing address and e-mail) The running head is a shortened version of the paper’s full title, and it is used to help readers identify the titles for published articles (even if your paper is not intended for publication, your paper should still have a running head). The running head cannot exceed 50 characters, including spaces and punctuation. The running head’s title should be in capital letters. The running head should be flush left, and page numbers should be flush right. On the title page, the running head should include the words “Running head.” For pages following the title page, repeat the running head in all caps without “Running head.” �VARYING DEFINITIONS OF ONLINE COMMUNICATION 2 Abstract The abstract is a brief summary of the paper, allowing readers to quickly review the main points and purpose of the paper. The abstract should be between 150-250 words. Abbreviations and acronyms used in the paper should be defined in the abstract. This paper explores four published articles that report on results from research conducted on online (Internet) and offline (non-Internet) relationships and their relationship to computer-mediated communication (CMC). The articles, however, vary in their definitions and uses of CMC. Butler and Kraut (2002) suggest that face-to-face (FtF) interactions are more effective than CMC, defined and used as “email,” in creating feelings of closeness or intimacy. Other articles define CMC differently and, therefore, offer different results. This paper examines Cummings, Butler, and Kraut’s (2002) research in relation to three other research articles to suggest that all forms of CMC should be studied in order to fully understand how CMC influences online and offline relationships. Keywords: computer-mediated communication, face-to-face communication The word “Abstract” should be centered and typed in 12 point Times New Roman. Do not indent the first line of the abstract paragraph. All other paragraphs in the paper should be indented. �The title should be centered on the page, typed in 12point Times New Roman Font. It should not be bolded, underlined, or italicized. The introduction presents the problem that the paper addresses. See the OWL resources on introductions: http://owl.en glish.purdue.e du/owl/resou rce/724/01/ VARYING DEFINITIONS OF ONLINE COMMUNICATION 3 Varying Definitions of Online Communication and Their Effects on Relationship Research Numerous studies have been conducted on various facets of Internet relationships, focusing on the levels of intimacy, closeness, different communication modalities, and the frequency of use of computer-mediated communication (CMC). However, contradictory results are suggested within this research because only certain aspects of CMC are investigated, for example, email only. Cummings, Butler, and Kraut (2002) suggest that face-to-face (FtF) interactions are more effective than CMC (read: email) in creating feelings of closeness or intimacy, while other studies suggest the opposite. To understand how both online (Internet) and offline (non-Internet) relationships are affected by CMC, all forms of CMC should be studied. This paper examines Cummings et al.’s research against other CMC research to propose that additional research be conducted to In-text citations that are direct quotes should include the author’s/ authors’ name/s, the publication year, and page number/s. If you are paraphrasing a source, APA encourages you to include page numbers: (Smith, 2009, p. 76). The title of the paper is centered and not bolded. better understand how online communication affects relationships. If an article has three to five authors, write out all of the authors’ names the first time they appear. Then use the first author’s last name followed by “et al.” Literature Review In Cummings et al.’s (2002) summary article reviewing three empirical studies on online social relationships, it was found that CMC, especially email, was less effective than FtF contact in creating and maintaining close social relationships. Two of the three reviewed studies focusing on communication in non-Internet and Internet relationships mediated by FtF, phone, or email modalities found that the frequency of each modality’s use was significantly linked to the strength of the particular relationship (Cummings et al., 2002). The strength of the relationship was predicted best by FtF and phone APA requires you to include the publication year because APA users are concerned with the date of the article (the more current the better). �VARYING DEFINITIONS OF ONLINE COMMUNICATION 4 communication, as participants rated email as an inferior means of maintaining personal Use an appendix to provide brief content that supplement s your paper but is not directly related to your text. relationships as compared to FtF and phone contacts (Cummings et al., 2002). If you are including an appendix, refer to it in the body of your paper. found that participants corresponded less frequently with their Internet partner (5.2 times Cummings et al. (2002) reviewed an additional study conducted in 1999 by the HomeNet project (see Appendix A for more information on the HomeNet project). In this project, Kraut, Mukhopadhyay, Szczypula, Kiesler, and Scherlis (1999) compared the value of using CMC and non-CMC to maintain relationships with partners. They per month) than with their non-Internet partner (7.2 times per month) (as cited in Cummings et al., 2002). This difference does not seem significant, as it is only two times less per month. However, in additional self-report surveys, participants responded feeling more distant, or less intimate, towards their Internet partner than their nonInternet partner. This finding may be attributed to participants’ beliefs that email is an inferior mode of personal relationship communication. Intimacy is necessary in the creation and maintenance of relationships, as it is defined as the sharing of a person’s innermost being with another person, i.e., selfdisclosure (Hu, Wood, Smith, & Westbrook, 2004). Relationships are facilitated by the reciprocal self-disclosing between partners, regardless of non-CMC or CMC. Cummings et al.’s (2002) reviewed results contradict other studies that research the connection between intimacy and relationships through CMC. Hu et al. (2004) studied the relationship between the frequency of Instant Messenger (IM) use and the degree of perceived intimacy among friends. The use of IM instead of email as a CMC modality was studied because IM supports a non-professional �VARYING DEFINITIONS OF ONLINE COMMUNICATION 5 environment favoring intimate exchanges (Hu et al., 2004). Their results suggest that a positive relationship exists between the frequency of IM use and intimacy, demonstrating that participants feel closer to their Internet partner as time progresses through this CMC modality. Similarly, Underwood and Findlay (2004) studied the effect of Internet relationships on primary, specifically non-Internet relationships and the perceived intimacy of both. In this study, self-disclosure, or intimacy, was measured in terms of shared secrets through the discussion of personal problems. Participants reported a significantly higher level of self-disclosure in their Internet relationship as compared to their primary relationship. In contrast, the participants’ primary relationships were reported as highly self-disclosed in the past, but the current level of disclosure was perceived to be lower (Underwood & Findlay, 2004). This result suggests participants turned to the Internet in order to fulfill the need for intimacy in their lives. In further support of this finding, Tidwell and Walther (2002) hypothesized CMC participants employ deeper self-disclosures than FtF participants in order to overcome the limitations of CMC, e.g., the reliance on nonverbal cues. It was found that CMC partners engaged in more frequent intimate questions and disclosures than FtF partners in order to overcome the barriers of CMC. In their 2002 study, Tidwell and Walther measured the perception of a relationship’s intimacy by the partner of each participant in both the CMC and FtF conditions. The researchers found that the participants’ partners stated their CMC partner was more effective in employing more intimate exchanges than their FtF �VARYING DEFINITIONS OF ONLINE COMMUNICATION 6 partner, and both participants and their partners rated their CMC relationship as more intimate than their FtF relationship. Discussion In 2002, Cummings et al. stated that the evidence from their research conflicted with other data examining the effectiveness of online social relationships. This statement is supported by the aforementioned discussion of other research. There may be a few possible theoretical explanations for these discrepancies. Limitations of These Studies A Level 2 heading should be flush with the left margin, bolded, and title case. The discrepancies identified may result from a number of limitations found in the materials reviewed by Cummings et al. These limitations can result from technological constraints, demographic factors, or issues of modality. Each of these limitations will be examined in further detail below. Technological limitations. First, one reviewed study by Cummings et al. (2002) A Level 3 heading should indented 0.5” from the left margin, bolded, and lower case (except for the first word). Text should follow immediately after. If you use more than three levels of headings, consult section 3.02 of the APA manual (6th ed.) or the OWL resource on APA headings: http://owl.en glish.purdue. edu/owl/reso urce/560/16 / examined only email correspondence for their CMC modality. Therefore, the study is limited to only one mode of communication among other alternatives, e.g., IM as studied by Hu et al. (2004). Because of its many personalized features, IM provides more personal CMC. For example, it is in real time without delay, voice-chat and video features are available for many IM programs, and text boxes can be personalized with the user’s picture, favorite colors and text, and a wide variety of emoticons, e.g., :). These options allow for both an increase in self-expression and the ability to overcompensate for the barriers of CMC through customizable features, as stated in Tidwell and Walther A Level 1 heading should be centered, bolded, and uppercase and lower case (also referred to as title case). Because all research has its limitations, it is important to discuss the limitations of articles under examination . �VARYING DEFINITIONS OF ONLINE COMMUNICATION 7 (2002). Self-disclosure and intimacy may result from IM’s individualized features, which are not as personalized in email correspondence. Demographic limitations. In addition to the limitations of email, Cummings et al. (2002) reviewed studies that focused on international bank employees and college students (see Appendix B for demographic information). It is possible the participants’ CMC through email was used primarily for business, professional, and school matters and not for relationship creation or maintenance. In this case, personal self-disclosure and intimacy levels are expected to be lower for non-relationship interactions, as this communication is primarily between boss and employee or student and professor. Intimacy is not required, or even desired, for these professional relationships. Modality limitations. Instead of professional correspondence, however, Cummings et al.’s (2002) review of the HomeNet project focused on already established relationships and CMC’s effect on relationship maintenance. The HomeNet researchers’ sole dependence on email communication as CMC may have contributed to the lower levels of intimacy and closeness among Internet relationships as compared to nonInternet relationships (as cited in Cummings et al., 2002). The barriers of non-personal communication in email could be a factor in this project, and this could lead to less intimacy among these Internet partners. If alternate modalities of CMC were studied in both already established and professional relationships, perhaps these results would have resembled those of the previously mentioned research. �VARYING DEFINITIONS OF ONLINE COMMUNICATION 8 Conclusions and Future Study In order to gain a complete understanding of CMC’s true effect on both online and offline relationships, it is necessary to conduct a study that examines all aspects of CMC. This includes, but is not limited to, email, IM, voice-chat, video-chat, online journals and diaries, online social groups with message boards, and chat rooms. The effects on relationships of each modality may be different, and this is demonstrated by the discrepancies in intimacy between email and IM correspondence. As each mode of communication becomes more prevalent in individuals’ lives, it is important to examine the impact of all modes of CMC on online and offline relationship formation, maintenance, and even termination. The conclusion restates the problem the paper addresses and can offer areas for further research. See the OWL resource on conclusions: http://owl. english.pur due.edu/ow l/resource/ 724/04/ �VARYING DEFINITIONS OF ONLINE COMMUNICATION References Cummings, J. N., Butler, B., & Kraut, R. (2002). The quality of online social relationships. Communications of the ACM, 45(7), 103-108. Hu, Y., Wood, J. F., Smith, V., & Westbrook, N. (2004). Friendships through IM: Examining the relationship between instant messaging and intimacy. Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, 10, 38-48. Tidwell, L. C., & Walther, J. B. (2002). Computer-mediated communication effects on disclosure, impressions, and interpersonal evaluations: Getting to know one another a bit at a time. Human Communication Research, 28, 317-348. Underwood, H., & Findlay, B. (2004). Internet relationships and their impact on primary relationships. Behaviour Change, 21(2), 127-140. Start the reference list on a new page, center the title “References,” and alphabetize the entries. Do not underline or italicize the title. Double-space all entries. Every source mentioned in the paper should have an entry. 9 �VARYING DEFINITIONS OF ONLINE COMMUNICATION 10 Appendix A The HomeNet Project The first paragraph of the appendix should flush with the left margin. Additional paragraphs should be indented. Started at Carnegie Mellon University in 1995, the HomeNet research project has involved a number of studies intended to look at home Internet usage. Researchers began this project because the Internet was originally designed as a tool for scientific and corporate use. Home usage of the Internet was an unexpected phenomenon worthy of extended study. Each of HomeNet’s studies has explored a different facet of home Internet usage, such as chatting, playing games, or reading the news. Within the past few years, the explosion of social networking has also proven to be an area deserving of additional research. Refer to Table A1 for a more detailed description of HomeNet studies. Table A1 Label tables and figures in the appendix as you would in the text of your manuscript, using the letter A before the number to clarify that the table or figure belongs to the appendix. Description of HomeNet Studies by Year Year  of  Study   1995-­‐1996   1997-­‐1999   1998-­‐1999   2000-­‐2002   Contents  of  Study   93 families in Pittsburgh involved in school or community organizations 25 families with home businesses 151 Pittsburgh households National survey Begin each appendix on a new page., with the word appendix in the top center. Use an identifying capital letter (e.g., Appendix A, Appendix B, etc.) if you have more than one appendix. If you are referring to more than one appendix in your text, use the plural appendices (APA only). �VARYING DEFINITIONS OF ONLINE COMMUNICATION Appendix B Demographic Information for Cummings et al. (2002)’s Review If an appendix consists entirely of a table or figure, the title of the table or figure should serve as the title of the appendix. 11 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Style Guide Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource APA Essay Example APA essay example