3 10 26 https://writingresources.lakeheadu.ca/files/original/27d373b576049078736f1e2b139314d3.pdf a4ddeedd0209127301638c9d95878d89 PDF Text Text OUTD 4733 Final Project Evaluation Small Business Owners Evaluated Elements Writing • Grammar, sentence structure, paragraphs, organization, professional Format • Creativity /Professional • All elements (cover, title page, executive summary, table of contents, content, references, appendices) Literature Review • Academic Research • Case Studies • Past Reports Value 8.5/10 23/25 Very much improved – a few areas that need a bit of tweaking Method • Articulated process of data collection 14/15 Well described Analysis • Articulated process of analysis • Demonstration of findings resulting from data • Recommendations • Grounded in research, case studies, past reports • Professionally articulated • Connected to larger tourism processes 13/15 You did a good job with some changes necessary 23/25 The recommendations are good, but all of them need to be grounded in and connected to research – not all of them are. 8.5/10 Mostly good, some areas need work Given the nature of your project, it has a professional feel, but is still largely academic in structure Have all elements completed 90/100 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Rubrics Hyperlink A link, or reference, to another resource on the Internet. URL <a href="https://docs.google.com/document/d/1OVFt0XNBq6pvxdQEna_mtOAYFAamEOxk0WjNRj6nq0Y/edit?usp=sharing" title="OUTD 4733 Final Project Evaluation Template" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer">OUTD 4733 Final Project Evaluation Template </a> Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource OUTD 4733 Final Project Evaluation Subject The topic of the resource OUTD 4733 Evaluation OUTD 4733 Project Rubric Small Business https://writingresources.lakeheadu.ca/files/original/5ff93291a865bae7c0f261924a49e762.pdf 9dccd2867d76e03d2664fdb8a43ee9b4 PDF Text Text School of Outdoor Recreation, Parks and Tourism OUTD 4733 Rural and Community Tourism Development UPDATED 2016 Fall Instructor Information Instructor: Dr. Rhonda Koster Office Location: SN2002AA Telephone: 343-8440 E-mail: rkoster@lakeheadu.ca Office Hours: Thursdays 1-4:30 Course Identification Course Location: SN2009 Class Times: Monday and Wednesday 1 – 2:30 Course Description/Overview From the University Calendar - An advanced course that examines the theories and issues of community-based tourism development. Students will apply knowledge and skills gained from OUTD 3733 in specific local, regional and national contexts. In addition to case study analysis in workshops and seminars, students will be given the opportunity to work with community organizations to develop and/or implement tourism related plans within the region. Rural and Community Tourism Development provides students who have taken (or are taking) OUTD 3733, the opportunity to explore, at an advanced level, the practice and theory of tourism planning in rural regions. Community service learning is core to the course, and provides students with the opportunity to work with community organizations to develop and/or implement tourism related plans within the region. Course Learning Objectives Upon completion of the course, students will be able to: • • • • • • Respond effectively to Requests for Proposals, from community organizations Develop a proposal to complete a tourism related project Undertake and complete research independently, with limited guidance Undertake data collection, analysis and synthesis related to a tourism project Provide a final document of their study/project Effectively present a tourism project for evaluation to a community partner 1 – 2016 Fall �• • • • Apply theories and models of tourism development and planning to a real life situation Reflect on the application of theory to practice Develop a working relationship, and an opportunity to liaise, with a professional body Develop professional skills within a team to accomplish a major project Course Resources Course Website(s) • Course website is located on D2L, accessed through myCourseLink Required Course Text • All course materials are located on the course web site Assignments and Evaluations ******All assignments to be submitted via D2L*******UPDATED!! Assignment Team Based Assignments RFP Proposal – Presentation RFP Document and Ethics Submission Final Project – Presentation Final Project Document Team Meeting Submissions Individual Based Assignments All About Me Content Workshop Presentation Evaluations (2.5% each) Date Wednesday October 5th Friday October 7th Wednesday November 28th To determine as a class – Dec As outlined on course schedule Friday September 9th Sign-up Sheet RFP Presentation Monday October 3rd Final Project Presentation Wednesday November 28th & Monday 30th Value 70% 5% 20% 5% 30% 10% 30% 5% 20% 5% Late Assignments & Attendance Attendance Policy: Students are required to come prepared, arrive on time and attend all classes. This class will not work to your advantage, or that of your mates, if everyone does not attend on a regular basis. Due Date Policy: Assignments are due on the date stated within the syllabus. NO LATE assignments will be accepted and there will be NO EXCEPTIONS. This course is designed around the completion of REAL projects that community organizations are depending on and therefore each student/group is required to complete his/her assignment on time. If you know now that you cannot make any of these deadlines, discuss the situation with me. If there are serious medical or emergency circumstances that arise, you must provide appropriate documentation. 2 – 2016 Fall �Tentative Course Schedule Week/Date 1/ Sept 7 2/ Sept 12&14 3/ Sept 19&21 Monday No Class Wednesday Course Introduction Guest Speaker: Executive Director, Tourism Northern Ontario NOTE Room Change RC2003 Lecture: Planning Models 1 (Rhonda @ Conference) Team Meeting: RFP Work Plan & Team MOU submitted via Dropbox 11:30pm Lecture: RFPs, Presentation, Ethics Reading: FedNor, 2009. Writing Effective Requests for Proposals: A Guide for Northern Ontario’s Tourism Industry Sept 19 4/ Sept 26&28 Last day to add or drop classes Lecture: RFPs, Presentation, Ethics Team Meeting: RFP Presentation DRAFT submitted via Dropbox 11:30pm 5/ Oct3&5 Oct 10-14 6/ Oct17&19 Lecture: Planning Models 2 Group RFP Presentations Fall Break Lecture: Community-based Tourism Lecture: Issues and Challenges in Rural Tourism 7/ Oct24&26 8/ Oct31&Nov2 Lecture completion Student Workshop 9/ Nov7&9 Nov 7 10/ Nov14&16 11/ Nov21&23 12/ Nov28&30 Dec 5 Student Workshops Team Meeting: Project update of work Alischa B. - Aboriginal tourism plan submitted via Dropbox 11:30pm Sofi C. - Experiential Tourism Student Workshops Student Workshops Meredith D. – Authenticity Sara L. - Destination Planning Karter S. – Contemporary & Future Jake O. – Best Practices in Tourism Trends Last Day to drop classes without Academic Penalty Student Workshop (Rhonda @ Conference) Duncan G. – Tourism as part of Team Meeting: Final Project update of economic development work plan submitted via Dropbox 11:30pm Tom B. - Product Development Lecture: Team Meeting: Final Project Presentation Final Project Elements DRAFT submitted via Dropbox 11:30pm Group Presentations of Project Group Presentations of Project Student evaluations submitted via Dropbox Student evaluations submitted via Dropbox Last class Wrap Up Team Meeting: Final Project Document DRAFT submitted via Dropbox 11:30pm 3 – 2016 Fall �Assignments Team Work Assignments = 70% Over the course of the semester, a group of 3 students will be required to complete a tourism planning project that has been requested by Tourism Northern Ontario (TNO) (Regional Tourism Organization 13 A, B & C). Through completion of these projects, you will be provided with an opportunity to learn about the various aspects of tourism planning, research, project writing and management. You will be evaluated by both myself and designated TNO staff on your professionalism and the final product. At the end of the term you should have a completed project and evaluation that can become part of your ‘portfolio’ of professional activities associated with your university career. There may be field trips required to conduct field research for the projects, and this will be conducted outside of class time and organized by the groups. Some compensation will be provided. Request for Proposals (RFP) Proposal – Presentation (5%) Due: Wednesday October 5th Your group will be given a Request for Proposals (RFP) that pertains to the project that your group will be required to complete over the course of the semester. Each group is required to give a 15 minute presentation on your RFP proposal to the class. Based on feedback you receive on your presentation, the group will have time to make changes and improvements before handing it in. RFP Document and Ethics Submission (20%) Due: Friday October 7th, 11:30pm, Dropbox Based on the RFP that your group is working on, you are required to write a proposal that outlines how you plan to undertake the study necessary to meet the objectives and scope of study for the RFP. Your group must complete: 1. A proposal (a document that outlines your project, the elements of your project, methodologies, timelines) 2. An ethics review form (required by LU policy – forms provided on D2L) Details of these documents will be provided in class. Example is provided on D2L Final Project – Presentation (5%) Due: Monday November 28th and Wednesday November 30th Each group will be required to prepare and give a 20 minute presentation on their final project to the class and potentially TNO staff. Your presentations should be information rich, but also visually rich. More details will be provided in class. Feedback provided on your presentation should be used to improve the final document. Final Project - Document (35%) Due: To be determined as a class – sometime in December Each group will be completing a final document that provides all the information that is required by TNO as provided in your RFP. 4 – 2016 Fall �These documents should be information rich, and written in a professional (i.e. not academic) structure and manner. Details will be provided in class. Examples are on D2L. This final project is due, for my evaluation, in December – date to be determined as a class. This document will be marked by me and your final grade will be developed based on this submission. You are required to then complete any changes requested by me and produce a final good copy by January 15th, 2017. This document will then be sent to TNO for their use and review. This process ensures that your best work will be provided to TNO, as your, my and ORPT’s reputations are at stake. At that time, TNO will provide each group with an evaluation letter of your work. This letter can then be used (providing it is positive!) in your professional portfolio. Team Meeting Submissions (10%) Due: As determined on the course schedule Given the volume and quality of work expected for each project, and the difficulties often associated with trying to find time to meet outside of class, 6 class times (called Team Meetings) have been set aside to work on your projects. During these classes, I will be available to meet with each group to answer questions and provide assistance. For each team meeting, a “deliverable submission” will be required that illustrates the group’s progress on their project. These are outlined on the course schedule, and should be submitted via Dropbox by midnight of the Team Meeting day. Details will be provided in class. All students are required to attend Team Meeting classes. Students are expected to be in class and using the time allotted to work on the projects. If a student misses more than one Team Meeting class without notifying me, they will be removed from the project team and will be required to complete the same project on their own. A Note on Group Work and Marking allocations: It is the responsibility of students to let me know if there are any group conflicts, as soon as they arise. These projects are time consuming and difficult, and require the commitment of all individuals within the group. I will do my best to help group members find a solution to issues. If, however, no consensus can be reached, I will allocate the division of work, and each person will receive an individual mark (based on the percentages indicated), and individual evaluations of their work by TNO staff. Individual Work Assignments = 30% All About Me (5%) Due: Friday September 9th, 11:30pm The purpose of this assignment is to help me learn more about you, with the aim of understanding your needs as a learner within this course. The assignment is available through D2L, must be completed within the document and submitted through Dropbox. 5 – 2016 Fall �Content Workshop (20%) Due: Dates are based on a signup sheet to be circulated in class Workshop Outline & link to reading must be submitted via email to Rhonda ONE WEEK PRIOR to your workshop date Each student is responsible to lead one workshop based on a topic selected from the list provided – the topic can only be covered once. If you have another idea for an appropriate topic, please clear it with me first. Workshop Topics: 1. Special Event/Conference Tourism Planning 2. Medium and Small Businesses and Tourism 3. Tourism Innovation 4. Destination Planning 5. Regional Planning 6. Tourism Marketing 7. Niche markets in Tourism 8. Experiential Tourism 9. Best Practices in Tourism 10. Tourism as part of Economic Development 11. Strategies for working with community/stakeholders 12. Authenticity in tourism 13. Product Development in Tourism 14. Contemporary and Future Trends in Tourism 15. Aboriginal/Indigenous Tourism Elements of the workshop include • Research and prepare a workshop on the chosen topic – you can organize the workshop in whatever way you are comfortable and feel is appropriate to provide learning opportunities for your classmates • The workshop must connect the topic to your project and must be interactive with the class (for example, ask questions of the group based on readings etc) • Each student will have approximately 30 mins for their workshop • You must prepare and provide to me, one week in advance of your workshop:  an outline, which includes a list of resources (readings, web pages etc),  a link to or PDF of one required reading for the entire class Elements of evaluation • You must provide me copies of your outline and powerpoint or other materials that were used (D2L) • Your evaluation will be based on the quality of the workshop and the materials supplied, the connection of the topic to your project and interaction with the class NOTE: All students are responsible for completing the provided readings, and participating in the workshop, by being able to respond to the presenter and asking informed and thoughtful questions. 6 – 2016 Fall �Presentation Evaluations – RFP and Final Project 2.5% each (5%) Due: RFP Presentation Monday, October 3 Final Project Presentation Wednesday, November 28th and 30th Students will be provided with a presentation evaluation form that must be completed for each group presentation, in class and handed in. The feedback must be constructive and aid the presenting group in improving their hand-in submissions. Grading Scheme An evaluation rubric is provided for presentations and document submissions on D2L Course Policies Attendance Policy: Students are required to come prepared, arrive on time and attend all classes. This class will not work to your advantage, or that of your mates, if everyone does not attend on a regular basis. Everyone must attend Team Meeting Classes – missing more than one Team Meeting Class without first contacting Rhonda will result in your removal from the team and require you to complete the project on your own. Due Date Policy: Assignments are due on the date stated within the syllabus. NO LATE assignments will be accepted and there will be NO EXCEPTIONS. This course is designed around the completion of REAL projects that community organizations are depending on and therefore each student/group is required to complete his/her assignment on time. If you know now that you cannot make any of these deadlines, discuss the situation with me. If there are serious medical or emergency circumstances that arise, you must provide appropriate documentation. Collaboration/Plagiarism Rules Students are expected to work collaboratively and submit project work as a team. For individual assignments, students are expected to submit work that has been independently completed. Students are required to know the University policies regarding plagiarism and academic dishonesty. Please be aware that the minimum penalty for a student guilty of plagiarism and or cheating is a mark of zero for the work concerned. University Policies All students are to be aware of and adhere to the following Lakehead University and School policies, all found on the ORPT webpage under Student Resources: • Student Code of Conduct, Academic Misconduct, Accommodation for Students with Disabilities 7 – 2016 Fall �• Ethics for doing research with Humans – all student projects that include human participants requires ethics approval, following the Research Ethics process • ORPT Culture of Respect Additional Information All required reading and supplementary materials for the course are provided on D2L. 8 – 2016 Fall � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Assignments Hyperlink A link, or reference, to another resource on the Internet. URL <a href="https://docs.google.com/document/d/1ptaqBA4ZyPrM55fKkz53HqJMfrfO4U-_2dI62QyyvP4/edit?usp=sharing" title="OUTD 4733 Syllabus" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer">OUTD 4733 Syllabus</a> Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource OUTD 4733 Syllabus Subject The topic of the resource OUTD 4733 Assignment OUTD 4733 Syllabus https://writingresources.lakeheadu.ca/files/original/25c65f97956b2d16c15e405c4d3b30ed.pdf 5a3cf62bcc80beb0659b92dcdb84aad5 PDF Text Text From PeerScholar http://absurdium.utsc.utoronto.ca/peerScholar/demo/index_demo.html Evaluation Phase (Phase 2) In this part of the assignment you will be marking 5 of your fellow students' writing assignments from Phase 1, and justifying those grades with appropriate comments. (Be nice! Constructive comments are helpful!). The success of PeerScholar rests on you marking each other fairly and, as a result, feeling like your answers were marked fairly. Please take this part of the assignment seriously and try your best to be a fair evaluator. Students should first read all 5 answers carefully. Once you have read the answers you will be required to give a score out of 10 for each answer according to the rubric presented below. Remember, you must complete the evaluation phase appropriately in order for your mark to count! Marking Rubric for the Critical Thinking Piece When evaluating please remember that you are evaluating how well the author has composed, supported and justified their argument. You do not necessarily have to agree with it, just judge how well the point was articulated and justified. Component 1: Content and Organization (marked out of 8) 7,8 Excellent • A novel position is taken, (rather than a summary of existing arguments in the article) • The position is clearly stated and coherently developed. • The position is precise and comprehensive and counter- arguments are anticipated and addressed effectively. • Compelling, logically sound arguments shows excellent, thorough understanding of topic • Well referenced examples are used as support. • References are from reliable sources • Strong command of focus, organization, & development. • Introduction draws reader in very effectively. • Discussion presents a sustained, logical progression of ideas. • A strong conclusion. 5-6 Average –Good • A competent and somewhat novel position on topic, perhaps not comprehensive. • The position is somewhat unclear and, although developed, not coherently • Some counter-arguments are anticipated, but not addressed effectively • Good understanding & some depth of thought • Most arguments are strongly supported. • Sources of some references may be questionable. • Good control of focus, organization, & development • Intro tries to draw reader in with some success • Discussion may not be sustained consistently �• Conclusion may not be completely satisfying 3,4 • • • • • • • • Some effort to be novel, but lacking in clarity and conciseness A partly successful position presented in general terms but inadequately developed. Few counter arguments are addressed, but not effectively Broad understanding, but inconsistent depth of thought Support of argument is rarely strong, sometimes inadequate Some control of focus, organization, & development Some reliance on formulaic devices in introduction, discussion, or conclusion May wander or shift topics abruptly at times 0,1,2 Poor • An unclear or illogical position, responding partially, or simply summarizing arguments in the articles. • Little or no effort to anticipate & address counter-arguments • Weak or limited understanding, minimal depth of thought • Argument shows faulty logic, or lacks evidence in support • Shows weak control of focus, organization, & development • Rambling, repetitious, or hard to follow in places • No effective conclusion Component 2: Language and Grammar (marked out of 2) 2 Excellent Consistently clear, accurate, and concise. Minor grammatical problems or spelling that do not interfere with the meaning of the work 1 – Good Less concise and clear, some grammatical problems and spelling mistakes that somewhat interfere with understanding. 0 - Poor Many grammatical and spelling mistakes that interfere with understanding Include comments in each appropriate box and your grade. Then add the grades together and enter the final grade out of 10 in the appropriate box. � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Peer Review Assessment Hyperlink A link, or reference, to another resource on the Internet. URL <a href="https://docs.google.com/document/d/1Y2bb4GM01t4nHm-JmlHIZn5uN7xTVC8pozxWRvxsX_Y/edit?usp=sharing" title="Peer Scholar Peer Review Assessment" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer">Peer Scholar Peer Review Assessment</a> Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Peer Scholar Peer Review Assessment Marking Rubric Peer Review Peer Scholar https://writingresources.lakeheadu.ca/files/original/ef8aace4cdcd13ad0bb1d94169f2b185.pdf 8eac1166d4a2a6aad59655556d46f270 PDF Text Text RUNNING HEAD: ACADEMIC WRITING MODULE The Basics of Academic Writing for Education Students 2016 Edition Teacher Candidates’ Copy Created by: Meridith Lovell-Johnston and Rosemary Hartley (With much-appreciated input from our colleagues!) Faculty of Education Lakehead University, Orillia August, 2016 �Academic Writing 1 Table of Contents Introduction ..................................................................................................................................... 2 Rationale ..................................................................................................................................... 2 Learning Goals ............................................................................................................................ 3 Success Criteria ........................................................................................................................... 4 Part One: Word Choice ................................................................................................................... 5 Introduction: Choosing the Best Most Appropriate Word for the Job Writing Task ................. 5 A Better Way to Say It ............................................................................................................ 5 Words That Are Commonly Misused ..................................................................................... 6 Describe Action Clearly Through Accurate Verb Choice .................................................... 10 Part Two: Sentence-Level Syntax (Grammar) .............................................................................. 14 Creating Effective Sentences: Order of Clauses and Awkward Wording ................................ 14 Special: Prepositional Phrases .............................................................................................. 15 Creating Effective Sentences: Clauses Must Agree.................................................................. 16 Tense Agreement .................................................................................................................. 16 Pronoun Agreement .............................................................................................................. 16 Singular-Plural Agreement ................................................................................................... 19 Perspective Agreement (First, Second, and Third Person) ................................................... 20 Parallel Clausal Structure ...................................................................................................... 22 Part Three: Conventions of Written Language ............................................................................. 23 Spelling ..................................................................................................................................... 23 Capitalization ............................................................................................................................ 25 Sentence-Level Punctuation...................................................................................................... 25 End Punctuation: Periods, Question Marks, and Exclamation Marks .................................. 26 Commas ................................................................................................................................ 26 Semicolons ............................................................................................................................ 26 Quotation Marks ................................................................................................................... 27 Part Four: Types of Writing in the Professional Program ............................................................ 28 Email ......................................................................................................................................... 28 Essay ......................................................................................................................................... 28 Lesson Plan ............................................................................................................................... 29 Philosophy of Teaching (Or, of Anything Else) ....................................................................... 30 Rationale or Critique ................................................................................................................. 31 Reflection .................................................................................................................................. 31 Report (Formal) ........................................................................................................................ 32 Summary or Abstract ................................................................................................................ 33 References ..................................................................................................................................... 36 �Academic Writing 2 The Basics of Academic Writing Introduction This module was designed to review basic grammar and writing skills for students in the professional program. Although this module is not comprehensive of all grammatical rules, it addresses issues that instructors have identified as frequently appearing in the writing of students in the professional program. As you progress through the module, you will be asked to respond to a variety of questions such as multiple choice, fill-in-the-blank, and long-answer questions relating to the content discussed. Rationale Success in your written assignments for your courses, as well as for your placements, is influenced, in part, by your ability to communicate effectively in writing. Thus, it is vital to have an in-depth understanding of the mechanics of writing such as precise and appropriate word choice, effective construction of sentences, and correct use of capitalization and punctuation because these features influence the clarity and overall sophistication of your writing. These mechanics are rarely caught by spell checkers; they require you to consider the content and context of what you are writing and method by which you will communicate the message (oral vs written, formal vs informal, procedural vs description, etc.). Much of what you write and the way in which you write it is governed by the purpose and format of the writing. For example, the language used for a report is different than the language used for a reflection. Thus, it is very important to consider the type of writing required as well as your instructor’s requirements for the assignment. Additionally, there are multiple ways to format your writing, including differing rules for punctuation such as commas, which depend on the style guide consulted. Much academic writing in education programs, journals, and other publications is formatted in the style of the American Psychological Association Manual (APA Manual) which is currently in its sixth edition. Thus, in this module, the APA Manual guidelines, called the APA Style, are the default rules used for grammar and formatting. Copies of the fifth and sixth editions of the manual are available in the Lakehead Education Library (6th edition or 5th edition). If you are unable to find an APA manual or are at home and don’t have it handy, you can consult Purdue University’s Online Writing Lab at https://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/560/01/. The Guides to Effective Instruction (Ministry of Education and Training, 2003, 2005, 2006), describe the writing process used in Ontario schools and elsewhere to teach students to become more sophisticated and effective in their writing. The stages outline a five step process where writers first gather and organize their ideas to plan their writing (Brainstorming, Generating and Selecting Ideas); then write a draft based on their plans (Drafting); revise the language use and flow of ideas (Revision); proofread and edit the work to ensure spelling and other conventions are used correctly (Editing and Proofreading); and share the work with others �Academic Writing 3 (Sharing and Publishing). Effective writers understand that successful writing is not random; it is planned in advance and revised until the author is satisfied that the writing communicates the intended message in the most effective way possible. Much of the current module addresses the stages of Revision and Editing, both of which can be quite time-consuming. However, with practice, the use of the language and conventions outlined in the module will become second nature and the need for time-consuming revision and editing will decrease. Online modules are limited in their ability to effectively assess writing and written conventions on an individual level and provide effective feedback. This module provides a review of academic writing concepts only, your instructors will often provide feedback on your writing, and it is important to reflect on and integrate their feedback into your writing in the future. However, for the purposes of this module, we have elected to use the quiz function on Desire to Learn (D2L) in order to give instantaneous feedback (as per Success Criterion 1, below). Quizzes are a form of assessment more than of teaching, though the Guides to Effective Instruction (Ministry of Education and Training, 2003, 2005, 2006) do describe the supportive relationship between assessment and instruction; assessment makes instruction more efficient by showing teachers where students may require further instruction. The final task for the module requires that you provide a written response in the form of a well-written and cohesive paragraph on a given topic. Individual feedback will be given by the module administrators (course instructors or their representatives) on your paragraph (as per Success Criterion 2, below). Please read the directions closely for each task. At the conclusion of the module, a pdf copy of the module will be made available to you for your notes. Learning Goals As you progress through this module, it is intended that you will come to understand the importance of (as well as the expectations for) precise and accurate writing (i.e., word choice, syntax/grammar, and conventions) to your success as a teacher candidate in the professional program and as a future teacher. Specifically, you will be asked to: 1. Use appropriate vocabulary for academic writing and develop a repertoire of appropriate technical vocabulary for teaching; 2. Identify and correct common errors in word choice and usage such as vague or informal language, improper agreement (tenses, plurals, pronouns, and perspectives), and homonyms; 3. Use correct sentence-level syntax; 4. Identify and correct common errors in writing conventions such as spelling, capitalization, and punctuation; and 5. Choose appropriate tone and voice for specific writing contexts. �Academic Writing 4 Success Criteria This module serves as a base on which to build your academic writing during the program and the principles herein serve as minimum standards for proficient academic and technical writing in the professional program. You may already know many of these principles and the activities will serve as reminders. However, there may be some principles you do not know. The true test of whether you understand the principles related to precise and accurate writing (word choice, syntax/grammar, and conventions) will be if you use these principles consistently in your writing during the program and in your placements. However, for the purposes of this module, the criteria for success are: 1. I can complete the quizzes with an average score of at least 75% with no individual quiz having a score below 60%. 2. I can write a paragraph of at least five sentences in length on an assigned topic that demonstrates accurate use of word choice, grammar, and conventions. �Academic Writing 5 Part One: Word Choice Introduction: Choosing the Best Most Appropriate Word for the Job Writing Task Precise and careful use of language, both written and oral, are important aspects of the professional program and of teaching in general. When the author takes care to be concise, specific, and accurate in his or her writing, it is much easier to attain an appropriate professional or academic tone and to sound confident and demonstrate your knowledge about the topic. Considered word choice is a factor that separates oral from written language. Although there are suggested ways to improve oral language in order to sound more professional, most use of oral language in the professional program will not be rehearsed and polished in advance. However, care should be taken to practice using oral language in ways that teachers use it! A Better Way to Say It In publications that deal with children’s literacy and specifically their vocabulary use, it is common to see discussion about types (i.e., Bainbridge & Heydon, 2013) or tiers (i.e., Tompkins, 2015) of vocabulary. A description of vocabulary follows so that you can see how awareness of vocabulary and the differing purposes for the various types of vocabulary can help improve the clarity of your writing. One way vocabulary is discussed is in terms of types and purposes: Basic Interpersonal Communication Skills (BICS) and Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency (CALP). BICS comprise the language types required for everyday interactions (i.e., the language of the playground). Many children are nearly fluent in their use of BICS when they enter first grade, dependent upon the types of language interactions they experienced in the past. However, one goal of literacy instruction is to teach children the more sophisticated language structures, vocabulary, and ideas required for academic success, which comprise CALP. CALP language is more precise and sophisticated, such as the difference between good and proficient. The word good has many different meanings, based on context. The word proficient is more precise and describes a level or degree of competency. In terms of your writing, it is important to use upper tier words when appropriate and to select words that specifically convey your intended meaning. For example, what does “Rhianna did a good job” actually mean? Which criteria did she meet or exceed? Whenever possible, choose simple and direct phrasing that avoids informal phrases, slang, or unneeded idiomatic terms. For example, “Rhianna sailed through her reading assessment!” Although in popular speech “sailed through” may mean that she performed the task with few difficulties, quite literally, “sailed through” would mean that Rhianna would be in a boat either physically sailing through the papers or missing the assessment due to going sailing elsewhere at the same time. A second way vocabulary is discussed is in terms of tiers: from Tier 1 to Tier 3. Related to BICS and CALP, Tier 1 language comprises the types of language required for everyday interactions (such as clock, happy, or run). Tier 2 language is related to academic settings or �Academic Writing 6 more sophisticated discourse (such as chronometer, gratified, or canter). Tier 2 words are more specific and precise, but are usually applicable across a number of academic situations and disciplines. Tier 3 words are subject- or discipline-specific terms (such as phoneme, grapheme, or isotope). It is expected that teacher candidates will incorporate subject-specific vocabulary learned in their classes when appropriate in their writing about the subject (i.e., in lesson plans, reflections, reports, or summaries). However, most of the vocabulary exercises in this module address the shift from Tier 1 to Tier 2 words, whenever possible in order to make writing more precise and clear. Here are some phrases commonly encountered in candidates’ writing and some suggestions for alternate wording. ● Instead of “John needs to work on his reading” or “John must work on his reading,” consider “John would benefit from practising his reading skills.” ● Instead of using vague descriptors such as things or stuff, use more specific language related to the situation. For example, “Please put your books into your desks.” ● Instead of using words such as good, great, or ok; consider exemplary, proficient, adequate, superior, satisfactory, acceptable, appropriate, or successful. ● During procedural or descriptive writing, do not begin sentences with the words firstly, secondly, first off, first of all, etc., instead consider first, second, next, then, etc., to describe the sequence. ● I think and I feel are appropriate for reflections and some essays, however, may not be appropriate for formal writing such as reports. For example, instead of “I think John needs to work on his fluency when reading,” consider “John would benefit from working on his reading fluency by …” The second construction sounds more professional and authoritative. Alternatively, you could use the words recommend or recommendation. For example, “A recommended strategy for improving John’s reading fluency is to scan ahead when reading in order to confirm that the words he reads makes sense in the context of the sentence.” Words That Are Commonly Misused There are many words and phrases that are used incorrectly in oral language and writing. It is common to see some of these words and phrases used in professional publications as well. Here are some of the words that are often misused in writing. Some of these errors such as misuse of the homonyms their, there, and they’re occur with alarming frequency on social media and in turn, are becoming more frequent in teacher candidates’ written assignments and in-class writing. As you read through the examples below, think about examples of use or misuse in your own writing and try to internalize the correct usage. One suggestion to avoid misusing these words is to use your word processor’s find and replace options as the last step before you do your final proofread and submit your work. (This is the strategy Meridith uses)! A chart hangs in Dr. Helyar’s office that uses humour to explain commonly misused or misspelled words (available from: http://theoatmeal.com/comics/misspelling, if you are �Academic Writing 7 interested)! Although it uses humour to illustrate its point, the fact that such a chart exists is evidence that many words are misused or misspelled in popular culture. In this section, we outline specific examples of common misusages by teacher candidates in the professional program, which were contributed by the teaching faculty. ● While and Although: While is a word that is used to describe two things that occur simultaneously such as “While she baked the cake, he decorated the house for the party.” Although and though are used to describe situations that do not occur as expected or to show contrast between two ideas. For example, “Although she paid for the snacks, he ate them all.” Writers often use while when they mean although. For example, “While she paid for the snacks, he ate them all” would only be correct if he was eating the snacks right when she was paying for them. The APA Manual (American Psychological Association, 2010) also suggests that the words and and but may be appropriate instead of while when used in the middle of the sentence. ● As, Because, and Since: As is used either to signify two things happening at the same instant such as “As she walked to the door, she saw the car pull up” or to compare two elements such as in a simile (“He is as busy as a bee”) or other comparison (“He is as tall as she is”). The word because is used to establish a cause and effect relationship between two ideas such as “He received a passing mark because he handed in all his work on time”. The APA Manual (American Psychological Association, 2010) also suggests that the word since is most precise when used to refer to time, meaning “after the specified point in time” and that because is more appropriate when providing justification or establishing a causal relationship between two ideas. It is also incorrect to begin sentences with the word because, so you may wish to revise your sentence structure and use a different construction or phrase to compare ideas. ● Either and Or; Neither and Nor: In writing, either and or are usually paired together when the result can be one of the two conditions stated. When using either and or, the phrase occurring after the either and before the or must be parallel to the phrase that occurs after the or, or else the phrase can be confusing. Two examples of correct use are: “Every day, Jason either reads a book or plays video games” and “Every day, Sunita reads either a comic book or an online fan fiction.” Similarly, neither and nor are paired together when both conditions do not occur. For example, “Neither the boy nor his mother enjoyed the concert.” ● That and Which: According to the APA Manual (American Psychological Association, 2010), “That clauses (called restrictive) are essential to the meaning of the sentence: The materials that worked well in the first experiment were used in the second experiment” (p. 83). In this case, “that worked well in the first experiment” is the restrictive clause. Without this clause, the sentence would lose much of its intended meaning: “The materials were used in the second experiment.” Which statements can be used either for restrictive or nonrestrictive clauses, though the APA recommends you use that for restrictive and which for nonrestrictive. The example used is “The cards, which worked �Academic Writing 8 well in the first experiment, were not useful in the second experiment. [The second experiment was not appropriate for the cards.]” (p. 83). Without the which statement, the meaning is still maintained: “The cards were not useful in the second experiment.” Additionally, which phrases should be offset with commas and that statements should not use commas. ● Homonyms: Homonyms refer to words that sound the same but have different meanings and spellings. There are five commonly misused homonym groupings: their-they’rethere, to-too-two, your-you’re, its-it’s, and lets-let’s. These are all proper words that are spelled correctly, so they will not be caught by the spell checking function on your word processor, though sometimes they may be caught by a grammar checking function. ○ There, Their, and They’re ■ There is probably the most commonly used word of the three. It refers to a physical place (i.e., place the books up there) or idea. It is often used when explaining ideas (There are many reasons why …), though more active verbs may be used instead (Many reasons exist that explain…). ■ Their is used to show possession by multiple people and is a plural pronoun (i.e., They worked on their project last night - a single project belonged to all of them, or The teacher asked the students to work on their projects - each child or group of children owns the project). The distinction between how many students own each project is important. If there will be only one project for all the students in the class, then use singular. Notice that we said “possession by multiple people” above. Many times, in the effort to maintain gender neutrality, authors will substitute them for “he or she” and their for “his or her”, particularly because them or their sound less awkward. This usage is incorrect. If you are speaking about a specific student, use the appropriate gendered pronoun (or appropriate substitute) to represent the individual’s gender or sexual orientation (American Psychological Association, 2010, pp. 73-74). If speaking about individuals in general where the gender is not specified or the group is mixed, then you would use a singular pronoun or both singular pronouns (i.e., Each student will complete his or her own project or you can remove the pronouns and reword the sentence to Each student will complete an individual project). For precision of expression, the best practice would be to consistently use plural when referring to more than one specific student (i.e., The students will complete their own projects). ■ They’re is a contraction that represents the words “they are”. In formal academic writing, you should avoid using contractions, instead, writing “they are”. However, some instructors do permit the use of contractions in their papers; if in doubt, contact your instructor. ○ To, Too, and Two �Academic Writing 9 ■ Unless you are discussing quantity, the word you are most likely to use is the word to. To is a preposition that is used in multiple contexts such as to show motion (i.e., He ran to the store), to begin prepositional phrases when joined with certain verbs (i.e., It was attached to the paper with a staple), or to show limits (i.e., The tree grew to five metres in height). Although the word to is often to many verbs, it should never be used to end a clause or sentence (i.e., Where are you going to?). If possible, add another word to clarify (i.e., Where are you going to go?), remove the preposition (i.e., Where are you going?), or move the word to to the beginning of the clause, which is not appropriate for this example). ■ Too is an adverb used to mean as well or also (i.e., He wants to go too) or to show something to be more or excessive (i.e., She ate too many sweets at the party). ■ Two is used as a noun or adjective to show quantity or to replace the numeral 2. (i.e., They had two puppies). As a side note, the APA format recommends that the words be written (i.e., one, two, three) for the numbers ten and below if using them in formal writing, unless you are discussing something that is measured such as in math (10 cm or $9) or where you have multiple numbers in a row that will cause confusion (i.e., Ask, two grade 2 students…). You would not mix written words and numerals in a list (i.e., not He asked for 60, ten, and 15 dollars from his friends, respectively, to cover costs). ○ Your and You’re ■ Your shows possession (i.e., This is your book). ■ You’re is a contraction that represents the words “you are”. In formal academic writing, you should avoid using contractions, instead, writing “you are”. However, some instructors do permit the use of contractions in their papers; if in doubt, contact your instructor. ■ Ur should never appear in your formal writing. ○ Its and It’s ■ Its is a pronoun that means “belonging to it”. Normally an apostrophe is used when showing possession such as Meridith’s book, but not for pronouns such as his, her, and its, which is probably why it’s is used frequently when the author means its. ■ It’s is a contraction that represents the words “it is”. In formal academic writing, you should avoid using contractions, instead, writing “it is”. However, some instructors do permit the use of contractions in their papers; if in doubt, contact your instructor. ○ Lets and Let’s �Academic Writing 10 ● ● ● ● ■ Lets is a verb which means “grants permission to” or “allows”. For example, “Our teacher lets us listen to music during gym time.” ■ More frequently, writers mean let’s, which is contraction that represents the words “let us” and is often used to ask the question “Shall we?” In formal academic writing, you should avoid using contractions, though the use of let’s is an ambiguous area, because it is often used in lesson plans when describing dialogue and “Let us” is not commonly used in oral language. Spelt, Learnt, Dreamt, etc.: In the English language, the main past tense marker is “ed”. When the “ed” is pronounced at the end of a word, it can either sound like /d/ or /t/ depending on the base word and its spelling. This special spelling and pronunciation for the past tense marker is known as the flap. Young children (and popular culture) will sometimes spell the /t/ with a “t” (phonologically-based spelling), but more mature spellers understand the morphological information (that it represents a past tense verb) and will consistently use the “ed” marker. Spelling the flap with “t” is incorrect in most cases, however some dictionaries and spell checkers do not consider it to be an error, particularly because these words are sometimes used in poetic language. For formal writing, please use spelled, learned, dreamed, etc. Constantly, Always, and Consistently: Many times, teacher candidates will use the word constantly when they mean consistently. For example, “Students will constantly use correct punctuation.” By using this wording, the author is saying that the students will do this and only this, and because the end period is not specified, they will be punctuating, constantly, forever! Likewise, “Students will always use correct punctuation” would have a similar meaning, unless qualified such as “Students will always use correct punctuation when writing stories”, however this wording is awkward. If you intend to say that students will do something each time, a far better word would be consistently, such as “Students will consistently use correct punctuation in their story writing” or “Students will use correct punctuation consistently when writing stories”. Based off and based on or upon: There are many examples, of which this is one, of times when teacher candidates choose inappropriate prepositions in their writing. Instead of saying “The decision was based off (of) his performance on the exam”, a more proper way to communicate the idea would be “The decision was based on his poor performance on the exam” or “The basis for the decision was his poor performance on the exam” or “They made a decision based upon the information they had gathered”. If I was and If I were: According to quora.com, both If I was and If I were are correct, however, If I were is technically more correct and is typically used in more formal language. For example, “If I were to assess the students now, I would ask them to write a paragraph about their experiences”. Describe Action Clearly Through Accurate Verb Choice �Academic Writing 11 One of the most common word choice errors reported by instructors in the professional program is the selection of inappropriate verbs (and verb tenses!) for lesson plans, reports, and other writing to describe teaching and learning activities that occurred, are presently occurring, or may occur in the future. One issue instructors have identified is that teacher candidates use imprecise, inaccurate, or informal verbs in their writing. For example, some verbs, such as teaches, are overused or are used to animate inanimate objects (for example, the curriculum, see below) and others set an inappropriate tone, such as forces. Some verbs are inaccurate or informal, such as grab. In addition to choosing the correct verb to describe the action, teacher candidates sometimes choose awkward, inactive, or improper conjugations of the verbs they include in their writing. In the current section, we begin by identifying some commonly misused or imprecise verbs in educational settings and offer some suggestions for more precise and effective word choices. Next, we provide some information about verb tenses. Tips for ensuring tense agreement in sentences are also offered in Part Two under the clausal constructions and agreements section. ● Verbs Used in Educational Settings - What does what you say actually mean? ○ Teaches (overused and non-specific) ■ Teaches (The teacher teaches students to…): This word is often overused; consider the type of teaching. For example, facilitates is suitable for student-directed activities, demonstrates is suitable for teacher-directed activities, or there may be other verbs that are more specific to the activity. You may find some useful verbs that describe actions and activities teachers and students do in the upcoming discussion about Bloom’s Taxonomy. ■ Also consider that specific learner outcomes (and the curriculum itself) are inanimate and do not teach students (i.e., “This outcome teaches students to read with appropriate use of voice”). Instead, teachers teach students the content or skills required by the outcomes. More appropriate wording would be “The outcome requires that students learn to read with appropriate use of voice. In order to meet the objective, the teacher will (or the student will)...”. ○ Forces (implies violence) ■ “Learning about social justice forces students to think about their own lives.” Consider alternate wording such as inspires, encourages, or challenges depending on the tone you want to set for the sentence. Also, instead of think about, you may wish to use evaluate, consider, reflect on, etc. It is vitally important that you consider the tone or actions implied by the words you use; consider that we do not use force as a teaching methodology! Short of brainwashing, you cannot force a child to think about something. ○ Grab or Get Out (very informal) �Academic Writing 12 ■ “Ask students to grab the stuff from the shelves.” Unfortunately, this vague and non-specific wording frequently appears in oral directions in class and in teacher candidates’ lesson plans. Instead, consider using collect, gather, retrieve, or even bring out for this direction. As a side note, instead of saying stuff, be specific about single items (i.e., their notebooks) or mixed items (i.e., the materials for their projects) in order to avoid confusion. ○ Hitting Outcomes (informal, “hitting” implies violence) ■ A common way teacher candidates use to discuss their lesson plans and the curricular fit of their activities is to say something like, “This activity hits outcomes 1.1 and 1.2 in the Language Arts Curriculum.” In education, teaching activities address or align with the expectations for specific learning outcomes. Teachers hope that students meet or successfully learn (or perform) the content (or skills) outlined in the specified outcomes. ● Bloom’s Taxonomy, named for Benjamin Bloom, was developed in the middle of the twentieth century to categorize and communicate the levels of cognitive skill required for educational tasks. Although not originally designed for younger students, the taxonomy is widely used today to ensure that instructional tasks are balanced and challenge students to think on more advanced levels. There are actually a number of taxonomies that fall under the title of Bloom’s Taxonomy. Pages 56 and 57 in volume one of A Guide to Effective Literacy Instruction (Ministry of Education, 2006) include “the original” taxonomy (Bloom & Kathwold, 1956) as well as a revised edition called A Taxonomy for Learning, Teaching, and Assessing (Anderson & Krathwohl, 2001). The “original” shown on page 56 included the levels remember, understand, apply, analyse, evaluate, and create. The revised version on page 57 changed the focus slightly to categorize types of knowledge and processes, rather than thinking skills, in order to reflect the reality that most academic tasks require learners to use a variety of cognitive processes and types of knowledge. A more well-known version of Bloom’s Taxonomy uses slightly different wording. Here is a helpful chart that Rosemary uses with her students: �Academic Writing 13 ● Verb Constructions Help Set the Tone ○ The verbs you select help set the voice and establish the tone for your writing. The APA Manual (American Psychological Association, 2010) encourages writers to use the active voice when writing. Active voice construction looks like: “The subject performed the action”. In the previous sentence, the emphasis is placed on the subject. Passive voice construction looks like: “The action was being performed by the subject”. In the previous sentence, the emphasis is placed on the actions performed. As you can see, active constructions are more direct; however they are also more clear and concise. Note that although active voice is preferred for the purposes of clarity and conciseness, the APA Manual states, “The passive voice is acceptable in expository writing and when you want to focus on the object or recipient of the action rather than on the actor” (p. 77). In practice, writers frequently use both active and passive voice in their writing, however, we encourage you to be mindful of how voice plays an important role in establishing the tone of your piece. ○ In addition to use of the active voice, another strategy you may use to add conciseness to your writing is to avoid verb tense conjugations that result in “ing” verbs, at least, as much as possible. An excellent chart found on Edufind (http://www.edufind.com/english-grammar/verbs/) shows the names and gives examples of active tense conjugations in English. When a writer strings together multiple verbs that end in “ing”, the result sounds less direct and less sophisticated. We are not suggesting that you eliminate the “ing” based conjugations altogether, but rather that you consider whether other conjugations may be more appropriate. Consider, for example, the difference between “The students have been practicing their speeches all day” (present tense continuous) and “The students have practiced their speeches all day” (present perfect tense). The present perfect tense example is much more concise and direct. Another tense frequently used in education , particularly for lesson plans, is future continuous tense. For example, “Students will be completing their charts and then they will be writing their results section and drawing a diagram” (future continuous tense). Note that “drawing” is underlined because the “will be” has been omitted, but maintains parallel structure with the preceding clause (then they will be writing their results section, (will be) drawing a diagram). Simple future tense would be much more appropriate and less bulky. For example, you could either write “Students will complete their charts, then they will write their results section and draw a diagram” or even, “Students will complete their charts, write their results, (and) then draw a diagram”, which is much more concise for procedural writing that occurs in lesson plans. �Academic Writing 14 Part Two: Sentence-Level Syntax (Grammar) “Incorrect grammar and careless construction of sentences distract the reader, introduce ambiguity, and generally obstruct communication” (American Psychological Association, 2010, p. 77). Clarity should be the most important consideration when writing. Unfortunately, oral language tends to be haphazard because it occurs spontaneously. Speakers rarely make full sentences; they use conjunctions to create run-on sentences, add clauses out of order, and ignore agreements between tenses, singular and plural words, and clauses. Oral language is the basis for written language, yet writing is more polished and follows a series of organizational conventions intended to improve clarity and reduce ambiguity. The relationship between the words and phrases in a sentence that govern the meaning are part of syntax. In English, syntax is most heavily dependent upon the order of words. For example, “Andrew hit the ball” has a different meaning than “The ball hit Andrew”. The word grammar refers to the rules that have been developed to explain and teach English syntax. The two words are often used interchangeably, but they do not have the same meaning. Of the two, the word grammar is more widely used, even though it is technically incorrect. For example, the word grammar was used in the above quote from the APA Manual (American Psychological Association, 2010), although the word syntax would have been more proper. Likely, grammar was chosen over syntax because it is more widely understood. Creating Effective Sentences: Order of Clauses and Awkward Wording The most simple sentences have few words: a subject and a predicate containing a verb (i.e., He ate) or verb and object (i.e., He ate a banana). Simple sentences (subject-verb-object) that stand on their own are called independent clauses. Writers add other clauses to their independent clauses to add specificity and relay the context of the idea presented in the independent clause (for example, He ate is a complete sentence, but it does not provide context such as what he ate, when he ate it, where he was eating, or with whom he was eating, for example). The clauses that writers add to independent clauses in order to provide the specificity and context are rarely able to stand alone as complete sentences, and thus are called dependent clauses. Each dependent clause you add to your independent clause has the potential to add clarity, however, it also has the potential to introduce confusion, especially if you are careless in the order of clauses. Different types of dependent clauses have different names such as prepositional phrases (begin with a preposition), adverbs and adverbial phrases (describe or qualify the verb), adjectives and adjectival phrases (describe or qualify the noun), etc., which we will not discuss here, except to remind you that your clausal structures should be parallel, as described later in Part Three. Here are some examples based on those from the APA Manual (American Psychological Association, 2010, p. 81) that, instead, use educational situations to demonstrate ambiguities that may arise from careless ordering of clauses in a sentence. �Academic Writing 15 ● Unclear whether the subject or object performed the action: For example, “The teacher assessed the students using running records.” When worded this way, it is unclear whether the teacher used the running records to assess students, or whether the teacher was assessing students who were using running records. Better wording would be “The teacher used running records to assess the students.” Although students do not usually use running records, a similar example showing the other proper construction is “The teacher assessed the students who were reading.” ● Incorrect use of qualifiers and modifiers such as only: The APA Manual (American Psychological Association, 2010) suggests that modifiers such as only be placed next to the word or phrase they modify. Consider the difference in meaning between these sentences: “The children only provided a partial explanation for the fight” and “The children provided only a partial explanation for the fight”. In the first example, the only thing that the children did was to provide a partial answer (i.e., they did nothing else, only provided). A more accurate message would be that the explanation was only a partial explanation. ● Incorrect use of passive verb constructions: For example, “The students were tested using this instrument”. In this passive voice construction, it is unclear who used the instrument. A better construction would be “Using this instrument, I tested the students.” Special: Prepositional Phrases According to dictionary.com, prepositions are “any member of a class of words found in many languages that are used before nouns, pronouns, or other substantives to form phrases functioning as modifiers of verbs, nouns, or adjectives, and that typically express a spatial, temporal, or other relationship” (2016, n.p.). Prepositions are very useful words; they are used to introduce phrases that add specificity to or define the relationships between nouns and verbs. The most commonly used preposition is to, though other examples include in, on, by, since, over, under, around, beside, and through. The order of clauses in a sentence, and particularly of prepositional phrases, is important to understanding the meaning of the sentence. In oral language, we often tack clauses on to sentences without regard for their order. This practice, when transferred to writing, causes ambiguity. When adding prepositional phrases to nouns or verbs, place the clauses as close as possible to the nouns and verbs they modify. When multiple phrases are used, reread the order of phrases to ensure that the meaning is clear. A special rule for prepositional phrases is that sentences (or major clauses) should not end with a preposition “left hanging” without finishing the clause by including the object to which it refers. For example, “He said he was going to go to the store” where “the store” relates where he is going. Note, in the first sentence of the current paragraph, we used the wording “to which it refers” rather than “...without finishing the clause by including the object that it refers to”; this is one strategy you can use to reduce the use of hanging prepositions at the end of clauses. Another strategy is to choose alternate wording. For example, in the previous paragraph, our use of the phrase “tack clauses on / to sentences” would better be worded as “add clauses / to �Academic Writing 16 sentences”). Typically, when teacher candidates conclude sentences awkwardly with prepositions, there is actually a better, more succinct or specific verb that could have been used instead! Primary culprits are phrases such as “think about” “reflect on”, or “go to”. For example, the following is incorrect because a major phrase ends with a preposition that is not followed by a noun: “They will use the information I asked them to think about yesterday”. Another example is: “They will go to the website I asked them to go to,” where the first instance of “go to” is used correctly because a noun phrase (i.e., the website) follows immediately and the second is used incorrectly because no noun phrase follows immediately. In the current example, visit or access would be more suitable verbs. Creating Effective Sentences: Clauses Must Agree An effective sentence contains a careful balance of agreements between the clauses. The verb tenses must agree. The pronouns must agree with the nouns they represent. Consistency between singular and plural nouns and verbs and between perspectives is vital. Oral language is far less careful than written language about agreements. However, writing is both confusing and ambiguous when the clauses do not agree. Tense Agreement When writing, it is important to maintain a consistent tense throughout the piece. Often, the choice of tense depends on the task. For example, when reporting actions that occurred in the past or citing work other authors have published, be consistent with past tenses. When completing a lesson plan, the best practice is to use future tenses, like the simple future tense described in Part 1. Pronoun Agreement Pronouns provide a convenient method to simplify the wording of sentences and make them less repetitive. Unfortunately, pronouns can also introduce ambiguity into sentences if multiple pronouns are used and it is unclear to which noun each refers. When introducing a pronoun, make sure that you first introduce the noun to which the pronoun refers, with the exception of the personal pronouns such as I and we, as well as the second person pronouns such as you, if the audience is known to you. The chart below has been created to demonstrate the difference between the various pronouns used to replace nouns in English. The first column shows the form used in the subject of a sentence (the person or thing that performs the action). The second column shows the form used in the predicate of the sentence when a person or thing is acted upon by the subject. The third column contains the pronoun forms used to show possession of an object and the fourth column contains the pronoun forms used to describe or qualify the object that is possessed (i.e., That book is mine). Pronouns, particularly first person pronouns, are often used incorrectly. Below, we explain how and when each form of pronoun is used as well as rules that govern more complex usages. �Academic Writing 17 Subject Form Predicate Form Possessive Form An Object Possessed Is I me, myself my mine you you, yourself (s), yourselves (p) your yours he him, himself his his she her, herself her hers we us, ourselves our ours they them, themselves their theirs it it, itself its its In the past it was common to default to the male form (i.e., he) when referring to mixed groups or to groups where the composition was unknown or ambiguous. In response to concerns about the imbalance, some publications began to use the female form (i.e., she) or to alternate between male and female forms within the same work. The APA Manual (American Psychological Association, 2010) guidelines on the use of pronouns recommend using the least ambiguous pronoun. If the subject is obviously male or female or identifies as male or female, use the appropriate pronouns for male or female. Avoid overly gendered language (i.e., police officer, not policeman) whenever possible. As mentioned in Part 1, to avoid gendered language when referring to an ambiguous subject, some authors default to plural pronouns such as them and their when referring to an individual when that individual’s gender is not known and this usage is incorrect. To avoid this imbalance, it is often easier to revise the sentence to be consistently plural (i.e., “The teacher asked each student to bring out their book” is incorrect, but “The teacher asked the students to bring out their books” is correct) or to avoid the pronoun altogether (pp. 73-74). Note that non-gendered versions of individual pronouns to replace he and her exist and are used by some. Although these pronouns are not included here, the rules for nongendered pronouns would follow similar rules to their gendered versions. For your reference, Dr. Socha has provided three resources for the use of non-gendered pronouns: http://www.citylab.com/navigator/2015/09/ze-or-they-a-guide-to-using-gender-neutralpronouns/407167/; https://uwm.edu/lgbtrc/support/gender-pronouns/; and https://apps.carleton.edu/student/orgs/saga/pronouns/. ● Using Pronouns in the Subject of a Sentence ○ When used in the subject of a sentence, as a phrase in the subject, or as the primary actor in the situation, the proper form to use is I, you, he, she, we, they, or it. For example, “They enjoyed eating the ice cream cones when they were at the zoo.” In the preceding sentence, care has been taken to balance both clauses (i.e., �Academic Writing 18 “They enjoyed eating the ice cream cones” and “they were at the zoo”) that occur on both sides of the when. Both used the same type of pronoun and both used verbs that were in similar past tenses. ○ When combining pronouns to make more sophisticated subjects, the order of pronouns is important. When determining which verb to use after a subject joined with a conjunction, one trick is to remove the “and ___” part, and read the sentence again to determine which verb conjugation to use. Usually this doesn’t make a large difference, but the same trick applies when nouns or phrases are used in the subject as well. For example, “The girls and I are going to the park today”. ■ When combining first and second or third person pronouns in the subject, always use the personal pronoun I and put the other person first (i.e., “You and I”, “She and I”). Never use me in the subject! “Me and you” and “Me and him”, though commonly used, are incorrect at the beginning of the sentence; so, too, are “Me and my sister” or “Me and Brady” when used in the subject. ■ When combining second and third person or other pronouns in the subject, place the second person pronoun first and ensure you are parallel in your use of subject pronouns (i.e., “You and she”, “You and they”, “You and Barb”, “You and your dog”). Mixed pronoun types such as “You and her”, “You and him”, or “You and them”, though common, are incorrect. ● Using Pronouns as the Object in the Predicate of a Sentence ○ When used in the predicate of a sentence or as a phrase in the predicate, the proper form to use is me, you, him, her, us, them, or it (i.e., “Peter gave the book to her”). Only if the subject is performing the action upon itself, should myself, yourself, yourselves (if audience includes more than one person), himself, herself, ourselves, themselves, or itself be used (i.e., “Sally took the book for herself” or “I hit myself in the shin”). A caution: hisself , ourself, theirself, and themself, etc., are incorrect forms of object pronouns. ○ When using pronouns in the predicate as objects of verbs, the order of pronouns is also important. Similar rules to subject pronouns are used when determining the order of pronouns in the subject. ■ When combining first and second or third person pronouns in the predicate, always use the personal pronoun me and put the other person first (i.e., “you and me” though us is better, “her and me” though us is better). Never use I in the predicate! For example, “She goes to school with you and I” is incorrect. Also incorrect are: “Me and my sister” or “Me and Brady”. Remember, the other person or pronoun goes first, whether in the subject or predicate. �Academic Writing 19 ■ When combining second and third person or other pronouns in the subject, place the second person pronoun first and ensure you are parallel in your use of subject pronouns (i.e., “you and her”, “you and them”, “you and Sam”, “you and your cat”). Mixed pronoun types such as “you and I” or “you and she”, though common, are incorrect. For example, “Jeanette gave the prize to you and me” is correct, rather than “to you and I”. If in doubt, say the sentence twice - once with each piece of the compound object - such as “Jeanette gave the prize to you” and “Jeanette gave the prize to me”. ● Using Pronouns to Show Possession ○ When an object or objects are owned and a pronoun is used, the proper form is my ________, your ________, his ________, her ________, our ________, their ________, or its ________. When referring to the object or objects that are owned, the proper form is mine, yours, his, hers, ours, theirs, or its. For example, “That book is mine.” ■ When combining first and second or third person pronouns in the predicate, always use the personal pronoun me and put the other person first (i.e., “your and my” though our is better, “hers and mine” though ours is better). Also incorrect are: “Mine and and my sister’s aunt” (incorrect use of my/mine and incorrect order) or “Me and Brady’s team”. More correct would be: “My sister and my aunt” and “Brady and my team”, though our would be more preferred, if possible. ■ When combining second and third person or other pronouns in the subject, place the second person pronoun first and ensure you are parallel in your use of subject pronouns (i.e., “your and her”, “yours and theirs”, “your and Sam’s”. Singular-Plural Agreement Singular-plural agreement has been addressed previously in various places within the module, particularly in Part 1 and 2, ● In Part 1 where we described words that are often misused: “The distinction between how many students own each project is important. If there will be only one project for all the students in the class, then use singular.” In this example, we highlighted the need to distinguish between single or multiple objects. ● In Part 2 where we described verb agreements between plural and singular nouns and pronouns. ● In Part 2 where we described agreements between plural and singular pronouns. ● In Part 3 (yet to come) where we will discuss plural vs possessive markers in the context of spelling. �Academic Writing 20 These four agreement types reflect the majority of plural-singular agreement errors made by teacher candidates. In order to decrease repetitiveness, we will not repeat the content here, except to say that as a writer, it is important to reduce ambiguity by being both specific and consistent with the use of singular or plural nouns, pronouns, verbs, and possessives in your writing. Perspective Agreement (First, Second, and Third Person) In English, there are three different perspectives (or voices) that a writer can assume: first person, second person, and third person. Each perspective has different uses, though their uses may be mixed within a piece dependent upon the type of writing task. Some perspectives may be inappropriate for certain tasks. If you are in doubt as to whether a certain perspective is appropriate or inappropriate for your writing task, either default to the more formal perspectives or consult your instructor. In writing undertaken from a first person perspective, the writer either places him or herself within the work as narrator, describes the action with him or herself as part of it, or, in the case of a story, assumes the identity of a character. From a literary perspective, first person perspective makes the story more personal and relatable or persuasive. In the professional program, first person perspective is always appropriate for sharing thoughts and reflections. Additionally, the APA Manual (American Psychological Association, 2010) also allows the use of first person perspective (i.e., through the use of either I or we) within essays or articles, particularly as a way of reducing ambiguity when referring to oneself in third person (i.e., “The researchers” or “The teachers”). In writing undertaken from a second person perspective, the author speaks to the audience directly and involves the audience in the piece (i.e., through the use of you). The audience may be a single person or multiple people; in English, both types use the word you. Second person perspective is often mixed with first person, when relating an interactive narrative or description to an audience (i.e., “You should have seen the size of the fish we caught yesterday!”) or either implied or present when giving instructions in an imperative sentence (i.e., for GPS: “Turn right, then proceed for one kilometre. Your destination is on the left)”. Although it makes writing sound more personable (which is why we chose to use it for this module), second person perspective is very informal. Although its use may be appropriate for some essays, it definitely would not be appropriate for a formal report, for example. In writing undertaken from a third person perspective, the author excludes him or herself, as well as the audience, from involvement in the action (i.e., through the exclusive use of he, she, or it). In literary writing, third person perspectives allow the author to show multiple perspectives or to show the action taking place in a greater scale than first person would allow. Third person perspective is usually considered to be more objective, but can also sound cold or distant. It will be the default for many of your writing tasks in the professional program, though not all. It is particularly useful for describing action that occurred, such as in the excerpts from the diagnostic reports that were included in the two previous quizzes for tense and pronoun agreements. Sometimes, such as in the second quiz, the writer may choose to describe the action more �Academic Writing 21 generally using third person, then interject personal opinions or insights using first person, and this practice would be acceptable, depending on the writer’s intent and the purpose of the piece. �Academic Writing 22 Parallel Clausal Structure The final reminder we will give you regarding sentences is to ensure clauses used around conjunctions (and, but, and or) have parallel structures. Parallel structure means that the relationship and order between nouns, verbs, adjectives, etc., is the same in each clause and that, as we have covered in previous sections, you are consistent in your use of tenses, pronouns, and plural or singular forms of nouns, pronouns, and verbs. Another part of parallel structure includes using the same conjugations for verbs. An example of an error is: “I really like to hike, go biking, and play soccer in the summer”. Parallel structure would assist in ensuring that all the verbs were conjugated the same, because otherwise the sentence would sound awkward. The correct, and parallel, structure would be: “I really like to hike, bike, and play soccer in the summer” or “I really like hiking, biking, and playing soccer in the summer,” though the “ing” conjugations are more awkward. Appropriate and parallel use of clausal structure makes your writing much easier to read, ensures that the audience understands your message without ambiguity, and reduces reader fatigue. It is very easy to neglect sentence structure when you are constantly working back and forth revising your ideas within your written piece. Once you have finished writing, read your work over thoroughly twice. First, read on a sentence-by-sentence and ensure that all clauses within the sentence work well and are parallel. Make sure that each sentence stands on its own. (One strategy is to read the sentences in reverse order, starting at the end of the paper). On the second reading, ensure your sentences flow smoothly and transition well. �Academic Writing 23 Part Three: Conventions of Written Language When you are writing, one of the last things you will do is to edit your work to ensure that your use of conventions (spelling, capitalization, and punctuation) is correct. Recall from the stages of the writing cycle outlined in the introduction that final editing usually occurs after ideas have been revised. Spelling It is very disappointing and distracting to read written work when words are misspelled. In an age of word processors and spell checking features, there is little excuse to submit work that contains spelling errors. Sometimes, work done in class will have spelling errors, particularly visual displays on chart paper. It is important to ensure that you proofread all written work prior to submitting it, whether typed or handwritten. Here are some examples of things that the spell checking feature will not catch: ● The addition or omission of one letter that changes the word completely: For example, assess vs asses, rationale vs rational, these vs theses, or prediction vs predication. ● Homonyms: As previously discussed; there vs their, to vs too vs two, lets vs let’s, etc. ● American vs Canadian spelling conventions: Set the dictionary on your spell checker to Canadian or UK spelling. Be consistent in your use of Canadian spelling (except if you are quoting another work that uses American spelling). For example, practise vs practice, favourite vs favorite, cheque vs check, metre (a unit of measurement) vs meter (something with which you measure), etc. ● Many domain- or subject-specific vocabulary and names such as authors’ names in citations will not be known to your spell checking feature. ● Abbreviations and contractions: In most formal writing, you would avoid using contractions and unnecessary or confusing abbreviations (especially without first introducing the full term). Instructors’ requirements for abbreviations and contractions will vary, so you should consult with your instructor. ● The most common misuse of spelling conventions that instructors encounter relates to the use of apostrophes. This error is common in social media and popular culture and occurs frequently in teacher candidates’ writing as well. Spell checking functions may not catch this error, though grammar checking functions may (or may suggest the wrong one)! Thus, it is important to proofread your work to ensure you have used plural and possessive markers properly. ○ In English, the plural markers for nouns are “s” and “es”. For example, teaches, apples, boys, girls, books, etc. In most present tense conjugations, in order to match a verb to plural noun, you must remove the “s” (i.e., An apple falls vs apples fall; Bill reads vs Bill and Janice read or the students read) unless using certain pronouns (i.e., I play, you play, he plays, she plays, they play, we play, everyone plays, all of them play). �Academic Writing 24 ○ The marker used to show possession is the apostrophe and “s”, either ’s or s’. For example, “This is Sienna’s book.” An exception to the use of apostrophes to show possession is for the pronouns such as my, your, his, her, its, their, and our, which do not use apostrophes. Remember that in Part 1, we explained the difference between its and it’s. ■ When the writer discusses a singular subject that possesses a singular or plural object, it is correct to add ’s to the subject noun. For example, “The dog’s treat” or “the dog’s treats” if the dog has multiple treats. The same rule applies for proper names. For example, “Eden’s toy car” or “Eden’s toy cars” if Eden owns more than one toy car. ● An exception where s’ appears is when the subject noun is singular but ends with an “s”, such as class or James. Although it is common to, rather awkwardly, pronounce these cases as “The class-ez” and “James-ez”, do not write class’s or James’s. If referring to a single class, write class’ (such as in “The class’ teacher was away today”) or James’ (such as “Sara accidently took James’ book home”). ■ When the writer discusses a simple plural subject that possesses a singular or plural object, it is correct to add s’ to the subject noun. One trick for remembering this rule is that if the word has a plural marker (s or es) already, do not separate the marker from the base with an apostrophe such as church’es, instead, churches’ is correct. Here are some examples of when s’ is appropriate: “the churches’ new pastor” (if two or more churches share a pastor), “the libraries’ shared librarian” (if two or more libraries share a librarian), or “the dogs’ treats” (if there are many treats belonging to a crowd of dogs). ● An exception where subjects may seem plural, but are in fact not, is when descriptors are used to describe a group of subjects such as everybody (i.e., everybody’s mom) or crowd (i.e., All the students gathered at the school. The crowd’s mood was generally happy). ● If a word is already plural without an “s”, such as children or geese, then use ’s (i.e., children’s books or geese’s feathers). ● If the subject is more complex, such as when naming the two owners, the apostrophe is placed on the last noun only, along with the appropriate singular or plural possessive marker (i.e., Bill and Ted’s Excellent Adventure). ■ There are some, but very few, exceptions where an apostrophe may be used to show plural. These exceptions include certain abbreviations such as CD’s, DVD’s, and the 1990’s, though these examples are equally �Academic Writing 25 correct without the apostrophe and it may avoid confusion to remove it altogether. Capitalization Capitalization should be used sparingly. In the context of academic writing, it is used to mark the beginning of a sentence, a proper name, or a title of a complete work such as a book title or article title. (Titles are usually placed in italics as well). Titles of songs or other artistic works should also be capitalized. The convention is to use quotation marks, but italics are also acceptable. Abbreviations are usually capitalized. In regards to headings and subheadings in your own written work, capitalization rules vary according to the level of heading. Consult page 62 of the APA Manual (American Psychological Association, 2010) if you are using multi-level headings in your work. One place where capitalization varies from the expected is in the titles of books, articles, and chapters included as part of a bibliography. In a bibliography, only the first word in article, book, and chapter titles is capitalized. Proper names are also capitalized in bibliographies such as: The true confessions of Charlotte Doyle. Words that follow a colon or dash should also be capitalized in a bibliography, such as in There and back again: A hobbit’s tale. The rules for capitalization in bibliographies are complex. We suggest that you consult the rules and examples in the manual (or on the Purdue site) whenever you create a bibliography for your paper in order to ensure that your use of capitalization (and punctuation) is correct. Sentence-Level Punctuation The rules for punctuation in this section come from Chapter 4 of the APA Manual (American Psychological Association, 2010, pp. 87-95). Punctuation is related to written language and is the system developed to standardize how spoken words are organized on the page. Although punctuation is not spoken aloud when speaking, in writing (American Psychological Association, 2010): Punctuation establishes the cadence of a sentence, telling the reader where to pause (comma, semicolon, and colon), stop (period and question mark), or take a detour (dash, parentheses, and brackets). Punctuation of a sentence usually denotes a pause in thought; different kinds of punctuation indicate different kinds and lengths of pauses. (p. 87) As you are completing your assignments, one of the last things you should do is to read through and check that your punctuation is present and correct. Your very last step should be to read your work aloud. If your sentences sound awkward or confusing when read aloud, they will sound that way to your audience as well. Successful written language flows smoothly and maintains consistent tone and pace. It invites the reader to read it aloud. The next four subsections address end punctuation, commas, semicolons, and quotation marks because these are where the most issues occur in teacher candidates’ writing. The APA �Academic Writing 26 Manual contains additional guidelines and examples for dashes, parentheses, square brackets, and slashes, should you require them (pp. 87-96). End Punctuation: Periods, Question Marks, and Exclamation Marks According the APA Manual (American Psychological Association, 2010), punctuation marks are placed outside of and after parentheses but within quotation marks (if appropriate). The exception to this rule is in the case of block quotations (which exceed 42 words and are indented), where the period comes before the page numbers in parentheses and quotation marks are omitted. Also, APA style requires only a single space after end-of-sentence punctuation. Many students were taught to put all punctuation inside and to use two spaces, however these practices are incorrect in APA style. Commas Commas are used most frequently to separate words, clauses, and other phrases in lists. Commas tend to denote a pause, particularly a pause that allows the reader (or listener) to chunk information together to understand the relationship between the words, clauses, or other phrases. One way to tell whether commas are needed is to read the entire sentence aloud with no pauses between words and see whether it makes sense. 1. Use commas when three or more items (elements) are to be joined together with a conjunction (and, but, or or). Do not use a comma when there are only two words, clauses, or phrases to be joined. In APA format, a comma is placed between each element, including before and or or. Related to the use of commas for separating clauses, it is important to ensure that each clause has a parallel structure. For example, “Jenny ordered cans of pop, bags of chips, and boxes of cookies for her birthday party” (all clauses begin with plural nouns and similar phrasing) or “Jesse ran to school, opened his locker, and retrieved the homework he forgot on Friday” (all clauses begin with pasttense verbs). 2. Use commas to separate nonessential clauses (or interrupters!) that embellish a sentence but would not harm the grammatical acceptability or meaning of the sentence if removed. 3. Other uses of commas include for separating dates that include years (September 1, 2016, was the first day of class) and for separating years in parenthetical reference citations (Lovell-Johnston, 2016, p. 4). Semicolons A semicolon is used to separate two independent clauses (complete sentences) that are not joined by a conjunction (and, but, or) or to join elements in a series that contain commas within them. For example, “When they went to the cafeteria for lunch, Jason ordered fries, gravy, and a hamburger; Ian ordered soup and salad; and Jamie ordered the special”. �Academic Writing 27 Quotation Marks The main use of quotation marks is for dialogue or quoting source text. Always use double quotation marks, unless you are using a quotation within a quotation. For example, you may choose to cite this fictional quote from a fictional article: “An expression attributed to Shakespeare’s Juliet is ‘A rose by any other name’, though the expression means something quite different now” (Lovell-Johnston, 2016, p. 51). A secondary use for quotation marks (often overused) is to introduce a word of phrase for the purposes of irony, slang, or an invented expression. Use the quotation marks for the first instance, but not thereafter. Do not use quotation marks when citing letters, words, or phrases as linguistic examples. Instead, use italics. For example, “Joanna would benefit from learning the difference between to, too, and two.” Also italicize technical or key terms on their first use, rather than using quotation marks. For example, “Phonemic awareness is a term used to describe children’s ability to identify the sounds, called phonemes, in spoken words.” Do not use quotation marks for most expressions for which we would tend to use “finger quotes”, such as in the following example: The teacher “rewarded” the class. In this example, italics could be appropriate if the intended tone was ironic, however, punctuation would not be appropriate. �Academic Writing 28 Part Four: Types of Writing in the Professional Program One of the points we have attempted to make throughout the module has been that although word choice, syntax, and conventions are important, some of these are influenced by the types or genres of writing you undertake. For example, convention use is different in poetic writing than in a formal essay. The tone, pace, word choice, and syntax may be different, for example. In the current section, we introduce some of the many types of writing you may be asked to do in your coursework in the professional program. We explain the basic requirements and structures, as well as some advice to help you in your writing. It is important that you consult your assignment sheet (if one is provided) and rubric or assignment grading scheme. Email Required for: All Classes, Placement Email may seem straightforward in today’s society, but when you are using email to communicate in an academic or professional capacity, it is important to communicate with proper tone and content. The majority of the communication that occurs outside of class in the professional program occurs via email, so it is important to check your email at least once a day and check your spam filter frequently. Some advice for emails: ● At minimum, begin the first email in the chain with a proper salutation (Dear ____). Some instructors prefer to be known as Dr. ____ or Mr. or Ms. _____ by email, even when they allow the use of their first names in class. Avoid a sense of over-familiarity by using the more formal salutation first, until and unless your instructor indicates otherwise. Subsequent to the first email, you may choose to be less formal if the respondent is also less formal (i.e., Hi Joe), or you may remove the salutation altogether. However, “Hi Meridith” is generally preferable to “Dear Professor” or just “Professor”. Please avoid “Hey _____”. ● Communicate in full sentences, particularly in the first email of the chain. Provide context and state the purpose for what you are asking or communicating. Organize your ideas. Remember to be concise but clear. ● Proofread your emails before you send them! Smartphones make instant replies very easy, however autocorrect features may not provide correct words, especially for educational terminology. Essay Required for: All Classes An essay is the primary way for you to explain concepts and demonstrate your learning in academic settings. Writing an effective essay is more than just writing your stream-ofconsciousness about the topic. Essays are crafted; they are carefully planned, organized, and revised. The expectation in the professional program is that your essays will likely be the most polished pieces that you write. Some advice for essays: �Academic Writing 29 ● Consult your assignment sheet and rubric, if available, to ensure that you understand the type of essay and requirements for completion. There are many types of essays - some explain, some report, some reflect, some persuade, and some simply summarize. The type of essay required should influence your planning and word choice. ● Plan the format of your essay before you begin. Research (if applicable) and organize your ideas into the most effective order. Find specific links to course content, experiences, and/or other sources that support your arguments. ● An academic essay begins with an overall thesis or theme and description of the main points. Then, the main points are expanded in the middle sections. Usually each main point will have at least one paragraph associated with it where you will provide your supporting details or research. In longer essays, where you use more than one paragraph per main idea, consider subsection titles. Consult the APA Manual (American Psychological Association, 2010, p. 62) for rules regarding the format of section headings. Your concluding paragraph or section should summarize your main points and provide a decisive answer to the question or topic. ● Communicate in full sentences. Provide the purpose for what you are asking or communicating in your first paragraph. Organize your ideas. Remember to be concise but clear. ● Proofread your essays before you submit them! Read your essays aloud to make sure they make sense and flow. Have a friend proof read them if you wish to make sure the ideas make sense and the language is clear. Just… proofread. Lesson Plan Required for: All Curriculum and Instruction Classes, Placement Lesson plans are a form of procedural writing, meaning that you outline specific steps (procedures) required to complete the activity properly and successfully. Although some teacher candidates tend to describe teaching and learning tasks in general terms for their lesson plans, “Read the story to the students. Tell the students to write in their journals for the rest of the class period,” a strong lesson plan includes step-by-step and detailed description of each step for the task. Remember that as you complete lesson plans, you should first demonstrate the task then guide students to complete the task with supervision and directed feedback. (These two activities are what make up teaching)! Only after students have successfully done the task with assistance, then they should be given individual practice with more indirect teacher supervision. Thus, you would not just tell students to do a task; make a habit of showing them how to do it first. More advice for lesson plans: ● Maintain consistent tense use. Simple future tense is recommended. (i.e., Students will do this. The teacher will do that.”) Remember to avoid the “ing” verbs when possible (i.e., Students will read five pages during class is a better than Students will be reading five pages during class.) �Academic Writing 30 ● Use complete sentences, though it may be appropriate to use imperative sentences where the subject is implied (similar to the current sentence). However, remember to be consistent in perspective (i.e., “The teacher will read the first chapter to the students. Remember to use appropriate pacing and voice!” This example switches from third person “The teacher will...” to an imperative sentence in second person or first person perspective “(You should/I should) remember to...”). ● Always use the Lakehead University Lesson Plan template (Orillia) or an appropriate template in the Practicum Guide (Thunder Bay), unless instructed to do otherwise. Although the lesson plan template may seem bulky, the parts build on one another and include the types of information required to demonstrate proficient decision-making about teaching. For example, your chosen learning outcomes from the curriculum should directly link to your learning goals and success criteria (how will you determine whether and to what degree the students have learned the curricular outcome?) and to your assessment. All of your activities should involve demonstration or practice of your learning outcomes or lead to demonstration or practice of your outcomes. ● There are many examples of lesson plans throughout the chapters of the Guides to Effective Instruction (Ministry of Education and Training, 2003, 2005, 2006). Feel free to adapt ideas from these lesson plans. Another beneficial practice is to review the plans to see how the authors break tasks into instructional steps and the words they use to talk about the different tasks involved in teaching. ● One important tip for lesson plans is to imagine that you are writing the plan so that someone else could administer it exactly the same way that you would. Thus, you should not make assumptions or exclude information needed to successfully implement the plan exactly as you would do it. Err on the side of too much information, rather than too little. Philosophy of Teaching (Or, of Anything Else) Required for: Religion, Some job applications or interviews The purpose of a Philosophy of Teaching Statement is to introduce yourself to the instructor or potential employer by outlining your beliefs and practices as a teacher (or teacher candidate). There are many different methods and styles of teaching and, through a philosophy statement, the instructor or employer learns about your values and practices and whether these align with the style of teaching they prefer for their schools and the atmosphere they are trying to maintain. More advice for philosophy statements: ● Be honest. Don’t pretend to be someone you aren’t or to think something that you don’t. It’s perfectly acceptable to talk about areas of growth for yourself as a teacher. Remember that, in an interview, you will likely be asked to expand on what you have written. ● Be sincere and reflective. Think about the core beliefs you hold as a teacher and how these influence the way you approach teaching and learning. ● Keep on topic and support your points with evidence from your experiences and knowledge. If your philosophy statement is for a specific school or school board, do some �Academic Writing 31 research (usually on their website) about their mission and value statements and address the key points in your philosophy statement, citing examples from your experiences. ● Be positive. Don’t talk about what you “don’t do” or “don’t believe in.” Instead, discuss what you do and what you believe. One of the worst things you can do in a philosophy statement (or interview) is to criticize other teachers with whom you worked in the past. Rationale or Critique Required for: Language Arts, Math, Other curriculum and instruction classes A rationale requires that you explain your reasoning (or rationale) for a decision you have made. Similarly, a critique requires that you make a judgement and then explain it. As teachers, we are often required to provide our justification for our decisions about what we have done (or will do in the future) as well as for our judgements about things we read or experience. Although personal interests, preferences, and experiences are factors that influence teachers’ decisions; it is far more important to demonstrate and explain how decisions align with the curriculum, child development, and other factors such as school or district policies. A successful rationale or critique directly links to and cites the sources used to make the decision as well as explains why and how they apply. In the context of the professional program, you may be asked to synthesize your understanding of any or all of the following in the form of a rationale or critique: the curriculum area (i.e., language arts), the curriculum for a specific grade and strand (i.e., media literacy for grade four), other curriculum areas (i.e., topics addressed in the Social Studies curriculum), class readings, research on child development, and/or other external readings or research. Advice for rationales and critiques: ● Proofread! Often, we see it spelled as rational, not rationale. Both of these are real words, so the spell checker will not catch the error. ● Summarize or directly quote information from your sources and explain how or why the information fits your context. Integrate and synthesize information sources, rather than drawing haphazardly from them. Your rationale or critique should flow and should demonstrate your understanding of the ideas, rather than simply stringing together a series of quotations. ● Speaking about your own preferences or interests is acceptable practice, but you should also provide justifications based on the curriculum, research, and your course readings. Reflection Required for: Every class and lesson plan Superior teachers are reflective teachers who critically examine their experiences in the context of their decisions, attitudes, beliefs, and practices. Reflective teachers are able to justify their thinking and how it aligns with the curriculum, local and provincial policies, and research on effective teaching practices. More advice for reflections: �Academic Writing 32 ● If a specific topic or question is suggested, ensure that you answer it. If you are simply asked to “reflect”, then the purpose is for you to evaluate and describe what you have done and your decision-making process, what you have watched, etc. ● Informal tone or narrative is acceptable in most cases, particularly for in-class reflections. For reflections attached to assignments, a more formal tone might be appropriate. ● An important aspect of reflections is relevance. You may include and analyze personal examples, particularly from your placement or experiences with children, but make sure they are relevant to the topic and that you thoroughly explain why they are relevant. ● Use reflections attached to assignments to showcase your thinking as a teacher. Include links that show how you have synthesized relevant course readings and disciplinary knowledge. Superior reflections are not simply afterthoughts; they add meaning and context to the assignments and highlight your growth as a teacher. ● Reflections are intended to move beyond a restatement of the experience. Lesson plan reflections should consider both the learner and the teacher. Reflections are personal and professional. Honest consideration of recognized strengths and areas for future improvement or growth (communication, planning, differentiation, implementation, classroom organization, management, assessment) is essential. Questions are provided on the Lesson Plan template to assist with building reflections. Report (Formal) Required for: Language Arts, other classes A formal report requires that you adopt the role of an expert and explain a concept or make recommendations (depending on the type of report). Writing an effective report requires careful crafting. You should provide rationale or justification for each point you make. Your instructor will have very specific requirements laid out for a formal report, including requirements for content and structure. Some advice for reports: ● Consult your assignment sheet and rubric carefully to ensure that you include each part that is required. ● Provide evidence and support (from your research, readings, etc.) for each point or evaluation you make. ● Plan the format of your report before you begin. Organize your ideas into the most effective order and find examples or quotations that support each point made. Begin with the most important point you want to make. Find specific links to course content, experiences, or other sources that support your arguments. ● Reports will often contain subsections. Each subsection should have an introduction. Consult the APA Manual (American Psychological Association, 2010, p. 62) for rules regarding the format of section headings. Your concluding paragraph or section in your essay should sum up your main points and provide a decisive answer for the question or topic. �Academic Writing 33 ● Word choice is extremely important in a report. For example, Meridith asks students to write diagnostic reports about oral language, reading, and writing. She expects that teacher candidates integrate the correct vocabulary learned in class such as phoneme instead of sound; decoding, fluency, pace, prosody, or comprehension as appropriate instead of reading; and letter orientation, spelling, etc., instead of writing. ● Reports are usually written in a third person, professional tone. In order to sound confident and professional, consider removing the following phrases “I feel”, “I think”, “I believe”, “needs to”, and “was able to”. For example, instead of “Dakota was able to read the passage fluently”, consider “Dakota read the passage fluently”. Related to this last point, “was not able to” or “could not” are very subjective evaluative statements, and are also to be avoided in reports. Specifically, with only a single assessment, it is impossible to judge whether the child was unable to do the activity at all or only as it was presented. It could also be the case that the child chose not to do the activity. Instead, consider “Dakota did not spell any of the two syllable words correctly.” Alternately, “Dakota seemed to have difficulty spelling words with two syllables from the list provided” would be adequate, though somewhat awkward with the “ing” conjugation. ● Proofread your report before you submit it! Read your report aloud to make sure it makes sense. Have a friend proof read it if you wish to make sure the ideas make sense and the language is clear and professional. Summary or Abstract Required for: Many classes A summary (or the special kind of summary called an abstract) is a form of writing in which the author provides the main or pertinent points of another, longer written work. In a summary, you should ensure that the major points or ideas the other work included are addressed, including major conclusions drawn. In most cases, you would paraphrase rather than copy the exact wording, unless the specific wording is vital to the point being made and cannot be made another way. If you are summarizing or paraphrasing from another text, you must provide correct citations using APA style or another style that your instructor requests. An abstract is a special summary of a research report or essay. In proper abstract, you would summarize each section of the report or essay in a way that is clear and allows your reader to understand the key points. Abstracts are usually under 120 words in length, but requirements vary. The purpose is to provide the key points and encourage the reader to read the work in its entirety. Advice for summaries and abstracts: ● Be objective. Usually, it is expected that you would relate the key points without comment or judgement. Sometimes, you will also be asked to evaluate, assess, or otherwise critique the merits of the piece you are summarizing. In this case, you would summarize first then provide your evaluation second in the form of a critique (above). ● Address each of the major parts or ideas in order, but be concise. Usually a summary takes the form of a single paragraph, though not always. �Academic Writing 34 ● Concise word choice is extremely important for an abstract. If you must include specific technical terms used in the report or essay, explain them in the abstract as well. Do not substitute other words for specific technical terms. ● Abstracts and summaries are often written in the third person. �Academic Writing 35 �Academic Writing 36 References American Psychological Association. (2010). Publication manual of the American Psychological Association (6th ed.). Washington, DC: Author. Bainbridge, J., & Hayden, R., (2013). Constructing meaning: Teaching the language arts K-8 (5th ed.). Toronto, ON: Nelson. Dictionary.com. (n.d.). Preposition [online], retrieved from http://www.dictionary.com/browse/preposition?s=t. Edufind. (n.d.). Verbs [online], retrieved from http://www.edufind.com/english-grammar/verbs/. Ministry of Education and Training. (2003). A guide to effective instruction in reading: Kindergarten to grade 3. Toronto, ON: Queen’s Printer. Ministry of Education and Training. (2005). A guide to effective instruction in writing: Kindergarten to grade 3. Toronto, ON: Queen’s Printer. Ministry of Education and Training. (2006). A guide to effective literacy instruction grades 4-6. (7 vol.). Toronto, ON: Queen’s Printer. The Oatmeal. (n.d.). Ten words you need to stop misspelling [online], retrieved from http://theoatmeal.com/comics/misspelling. Tompkins, G. (2015). Literacy in the early grades (4th ed.). Boston, MA: Pearson Education, Inc. � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Style Guide Hyperlink A link, or reference, to another resource on the Internet. URL <a href="https://docs.google.com/document/d/1ZWD946Ep-DJrVkzzMaVygjNnboP2Bgrs7jKru88RQ04/edit?usp=sharing" title="Basics of Academic Writing for Education Students" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer">Basics of Academic Writing for Education Students</a> Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource The Basics of Academic Writing for Education Students Subject The topic of the resource EDUC academic writing EDUC style guide https://writingresources.lakeheadu.ca/files/original/32f165c9b837a8685ab4b225e12910ec.pdf f1e1e2ceafaf7b1b79b98bdfa2475fee PDF Text Text The Participation Log: Assessing Students’ Classroom Participation Tony Docan-Morgan L ike many instructors in higher education, I expect my students to participate actively in the classroom—namely, to contribute meaningfully to discussion questions posed to the entire class and to work through applied problems and activities in small groups. The benefits of classroom participation are clear: “students who actively participate in the learning process learn more than those who do not” (Weaver and Qi 2005, 570). Further, many college instructors perceive student classroom participation as a factor in learning (Carini, Kuh, and Klein 2006) and assign students participation grades (Bean and Peterson 1998; Rogers 2013). However, classroom participation is difficult to assess, in part because it is difficult to track in a reliable manner (Armstrong and Boud 1983; Rogers 2013). My own experiences confirm many of these findings. During my first ten years of college teaching, I advocated that my students participate regularly in class, delineated specific expectations for classroom participation in course syllabi, and recorded the quality and quantity of students’ participation after each class session. However, I came to realize the difficulty of assessing students’ participation while they worked in small groups. Although I could listen in on groups’ conversations, it was simply impossible to observe and assess the quality of each student’s contribution to the group. Further, I began teaching larger classes, sometimes 6� totaling 125 students or more, making it unmanageable for me to assess each student’s classroom participation. In response, I developed a “participation log,” which students use to record their participation, reflect on improving their participation, and demonstrate to me that they are participating meaningfully in class. In short, the log allows students to record, self-assess, and work toward improving their participation in class, and aids me in assessing student participation, how students are processing course material, and how I can improve my teaching. group-mates questions, and brainstorm additional ideas. Do not shortchange discussions or activities by finishing early. I also inform students that they will keep a log of their participation. We discuss the log’s purpose for the student— to demonstrate an accurate record of the quality and quantity of participation, and to assess and work toward improving one’s classroom participation. I also highlight the utility of the log from my perspective—it allows me to assess student participation and understanding of course material, as well as how I can Reading and reflecting on students’ self-assessments has also improved my skill as a facilitator of classroom discussions and activities. On the first day of class, we discuss participation expectations outlined in the syllabus. Some of these expectations include: • Making a substantive oral contribution during class lecture or large-class discussion at least once a week (e.g., answering questions posed by the instructor, bringing up related and relevant information, linking classroom discussions to assigned readings). • Staying on task in dyads, small groups, and activities. When given a task or question to discuss, work to make meaningful and course content-driven contributions, ask improve instruction. I provide students with a template of the log as a Word document and recommend that students update their logs once or twice a week (see Table 1). I require students to submit their logs at mid-semester and at the end of the semester. Both submissions are graded. The logs are useful for gauging the quality and quantity of each student’s participation and their perception of how their participation aids classroom discussions. I find that many students’ self-assessments at mid-semester focus on how they need to improve (i.e., I need to participate more frequently and consistently; I should link discussion Assessment Update  •  March–April 2015  •  Volume 27, Number 2  •  © 2015 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.  •  doi:10.1002/au �Table 1. Log Template 1. Participation during lecture or large class discussion. Note that this type of participation refers to making comments heard by the entire class. Students should log approximately 10 specific examples and ensure that they are spread out over the course of the semester. Date What did you contribute to lecture or large class discussion? Report what you shared specifically and your perception of how, if at all, your contribution aided the flow of the lecture or discussion, as well as the comment’s relevance to the lecture or large class discussion. 2. Participation in dyads, small groups, and activities. Log at least 10 specific examples and ensure that they are spread out over the course of the semester. Date What did you contribute to the dyad, small group, and/or activity? Summarize how you participated, and your perception of how, if at all, your participation aided the interaction. 3. Self-assessment, reflection, and improvement. Log two self-assessments of your performance as a participant in the class, focusing on your strengths and how you can improve. Reflect on participation expectations outlined in the syllabus, as well as the quality and quantity of your participation in class. The first self-assessment should be completed between weeks 3 and 7, and the second should be completed between weeks 8 and 12. Each self-assessment should be at least five sentences in length. Date Reflection responses directly to class readings), and often need little elaboration from me. I provide individual, written feedback to students, which frequently corroborates their self-assessment and/or offers additional recommendations for successful participation (i.e., since your group sometimes finishes the activity and discussion early, work to ask group members to elaborate on their points; push the discussion by considering so- lutions that have not been considered). I rarely am confronted with a “fudged” participation log, in part because I remind students that I also monitor and record their contributions. Having reviewed hundreds of students’ participation logs for the past two years, I am more aware of their experiences as active (and sometimes inactive) classroom participants, and as a result have improved my teach- ing practice. The mid-semester and end-of-semester logs provide useful, albeit indirect, assessment data regarding student learning. Some students, for example, articulate confusion about course concepts in their logs. I am able to revisit and clarify course material at mid-semester and revise classroom discussion questions and activities for the future. Reading and reflecting on students’ self-assessments has also improved my skill as a facilitator of classroom discussions and activities. I am more sensitive to and aware of students’ voices in my classes, and better equipped to respond to and synthesize student contributions. ■ References Armstrong, M., and Boud, D. 1983. “Assessing Participation in Discussion: An Assessment of the Issues.” Studies in Higher Education 8 (1): 33–44. Bean, J. C., and Peterson, D. 1998. “Grading Classroom Participation.” New Directions for Teaching and Learning 74 (Summer): 33–40. Carini, R. M., Kuh, G. D., and Klein, S. P. 2006. “Student Engagement and Student Learning: Testing the Linkages.” Research in Higher Education 47 (1): 1–32. Rogers, S. L. 2013. “Calling the Question: Do College Instructors Actually Grade Participation?” College Teaching 61: 11–22. Weaver, R. R., & Qi, J. 2005. “Classroom Organization and Participation: College Students’ Perceptions.” The Journal of Higher Education 76 (5): 570–601. Tony Docan-Morgan is an associate professor at the University of Wisconsin– La Crosse. Assessment Update  •  March–April 2015  •  Volume 27, Number 2  •  © 2015 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.  •  doi:10.1002/au 7 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource External Links and Documents Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource The Participation Log: Assessing Students’ Classroom Participation Article Class Participation Rubrics https://writingresources.lakeheadu.ca/files/original/cb531e4f255fb7e55c8e195b2ba60750.pdf 635990fc2c825ff8e93faf16567c767f PDF Text Text • Writing a Structural Outline • A Writing Centre Workshop • September, 2016 �STRUCTURAL OUTLINES • A well-constructed paper distinguishes between main ideas, supporting points and points of evidence • A structural outline ensures your paper is organized so that the reader understands the hierarchy of your ideas and evidence • It helps you clarify the main topics and order the evidence so they answer your research question, or support your thesis, claim or controlling idea • Outlines save you time during the drafting stage and give you a quick reference to ensure your points are organized logically �CONSTRUCTING AN OUTLINE • Begin by writing your introduction in paragraph form • The introduction is structured from a general introduction to your topic that narrows at the end to focus on your thesis statement, controlling idea or claim • As you revise your paper, the introduction may change to reflect your final version • Include a blueprint of your main points/themes so the reader knows what to expect • Make the points in the introduction follow the order you present them in the paper �DEVELOPING THE OUTLINE • Roman numerals indicate main ideas or headings • Structure these so they are written in parallel structure – that just means they all follow the same grammatical pattern (kind of like in a job description on your resume) • Capital letters indicate important supporting points attached to the main idea you are developing • Numbers indicate details of your evidence and are listed in a pattern of development that you choose to develop your topic; e.g., • General to specific • Most important to least important • Chronological • Spatial/physical �SAMPLE INTRODUCTION & FIRST SECTION As the world’s population grows and global warming affects resource supply and distribution, efficient conservation methods are more important than ever. Soil, energy and water conservation methods that have been practiced for hundreds of years are inadequate to cope with the scale of the environmental pressure that is occurring. Environmental managers must continue to seek ways to honor traditional practices while improving yield and access through the use of technology. I. Soil Conservation A. Terracing as a means to prevent erosion 1. Methods 2. Best traditional practices 3. Technology and soil conservation �OUTLINE EXAMPLE II. Energy Conservation A. Traditional sources of energy 1. Obsolete 2. Traditional forms that have been adapted for modern use B. New technologies III. Water Conservation A. Traditional Methods 1. Condensation 2. Desalination B. New Technologies 1. Conversion IV. Old Ways and the New Technologies A. How to combine the old with the new V. The best approach to resource conservation is to use a combination of traditional methods with current technology. Traditional methods are not adequate to meet the challenges created by population growth and climate change. However, inexpensive but efficient technologies such as , , and have enabled managers and interested citizens to improve the supply and distribution of soil, energy and water resources. �Tired of writing? Maybe these illustrations will help Problem/Solution Approach Using the Journalist’s Questions as a Structural Framework �Balance the Evidence for your Claim 8 �RESOURCES • Four Main Components for Effective Outlines – Purdue Online Writing Lab • How to Outline a Newspaper Article – eHow • How to Write an Outline – wikiHow • Basic Outlining – John Jay School of Criminal Justice � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Writing Templates Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Writing a Structural Outline: Writing Centre Workshop structural outline writing centre